Ban Ki-moon's statement at the UN that "Ukraine is not a state - it is an administrative district of the USSR" interested us in the study of how the historical borders of Ukraine were formed.
NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen warns the Russian Federation against encroachments on the East of Ukraine, as this will result in “serious consequences” for Moscow in relations with the alliance and further isolate it at the international level,” and calls on the Russian Federation to withdraw “tens of thousands of military men” from the Ukrainian border.
Meanwhile, the news is rapidly spreading throughout the Russian blogosphere:
Surprise to the entire South-East from Ban Ki-moon! WHAT A NEWS!!!
On ThamesTV - an English channel, they show: the Ukrainian question is being discussed in the parliament, as usual, in the morning. It turns out that yesterday Ban Ki-moon made an interesting statement at the UN, and for some reason the Ukrainian media stubbornly keep silent about it!.. And ours too...
The fact is that The UN Security Council once again considered the issue of Ukraine, and the experts made the following conclusion within the framework of international law: it turns out that since the collapse of the USSR, Ukraine has not carried out and has not properly registered with the UN the demarcation of its borders as a state ... They remain on the borders of the administrative district of the USSR according to the usual agreement within the CIS, which is not legally binding in the UN.
Since the country does not have its official border within the framework of international law, there is no reason to talk about its violation by anyone. There is also no reason to talk about separatism, i.e. forcible reconfiguration of the border. You can't change what doesn't exist!
Until the information is confirmed, there are no official reports, but it turns out that Ukraine is not a state at all! And since Russia is the legal heir of the USSR, then all of Ukraine belongs to Russia legally.
P.S.
There is nothing surprising here. Ukrainian politicians had no time for demarcation or politics. All 23 years of sawing loot.
This is the backlog made by the Soviet builders of the state! The USSR is legally alive! And everything that happened after him is illegal and has no meaning. And the mere understanding of who voiced this will put things in order in millions of stupid heads. History is changing and happening right before our eyes! GLORY USSR!
Nazarbayev also contributed
History reference: How the historical borders of Ukraine were formed
Now it is customary to talk about Ukraine as the largest country in Europe. This is, in general, correct. Now the territory of Ukraine is almost 604 thousand km2, while the area of France is only 547 thousand km2, and Spain - 497. Only Russia is larger than Ukraine with its 3.7 million km2.
However, one must understand a simple thing - Ukraine itself did not, in fact, have any merit in expanding its territory. Let's consider some stages of the formation of the borders of modern Ukraine.
The first actually Ukrainian state can be considered the state created by Bogdan Khmelnytsky during the liberation war against Poland (the Commonwealth).
In fairness, it should be noted that Khmelnitsky has never been a fighter for the independence of Ukraine. His correspondence with the Polish king leaves no doubt that he fought for the legal order in the Commonwealth in general (remember that his estate was subjected to an attempted “raider seizure”) and for the rights of the Orthodox gentry in particular. Not meeting understanding, he received what he was looking for from the Moscow Tsar.
As of 1654, the borders of the state of Bogdan Khmelnitsky looked like this:
It is quite obvious that the hetman did not lay any claim to the southern lands, Crimea and Donbass. This was all the area of the "Wild Field", controlled by the Crimean Khan, who, at that time, was an ally of Khmelnitsky.
He did not lay claim to the lands of Sloboda, which, although they were inhabited by refugees from Ukraine, were, nevertheless, under the rule of the Russian tsar.
Galicia and Volyn were partially liberated during the war of liberation, but after the defeat near Berestechko, they remained under the control of the Poles. Khmelnitsky, by the way, did not seek to liberate the territories, but only the Orthodox people. That is why he limited himself to an indemnity from Lviv - there was, in fact, no one to release there, the Ukrainians (or rather, the Rusyns) lived there only on one Russian street, and even those, one must understand, fled from possible repressions from the Poles.
Well, about Transcarpathia, which was part of Hungary, there was no talk at all.
Historical borders of Ukraine in the Russian Empire
When we talk about the times of Catherine II, they prefer to recall the defeat of the Zaporizhzhya Sich and the official introduction of serfdom (de facto it existed even before that). However, at the same time, it is somehow naturally forgotten that it was during the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th century that the settlement (by the way, to a large extent by Ukrainians) of the former lands of the “Wild Field” - Novorossia and Crimea was carried out. The latter was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1783.
It was then that the largest cities of the modern South of Ukraine were founded - Elisavetgrad (Kirovograd, 1775), Yekaterinoslav (Dnepropetrovsk, 1776), Kherson (1778), Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1794).
Already after the death of Catherine, in 1812, Bessarabia - Moldavia and Budzhak - part of the current Odessa region in the interfluve of the Prut and Dniester rivers, was annexed to Russia.
If this is “occupation”, then the lands of the Nogai and Crimean Tatars were occupied. The Nogai horde, by the way, broke up, and the Nogais now live in Russia and Turkey.
In addition, according to the results of the second and third partitions of Poland in 1793-1795, Right-Bank Ukraine and Volyn were annexed to Russia. The remaining Western Ukrainian territories (Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathia) remained part of Austria-Hungary.
The Russian Empress did not only what the hetmans could not do, but also what the hetmans did not even plan.
Surprisingly, the current "patriots" do not at all feel any gratitude to Catherine for such a radical expansion of the borders of Ukraine. True, speaking out against the monuments to Catherine, they are not at all in a hurry to return the lands that she annexed. Moreover, Southern Ukraine (not to mention Crimea), unlike the Right Bank and Volhynia, was not a Ukrainian ethnic territory in any way and became it precisely thanks to Russian conquests. Unless, of course, we talk about the “proto-Ukrainian Trypillia civilization”, which was located mainly on the territory of Romania and Moldova.
Historical borders of Ukraine in the period of "free zmagan"
The period after the collapse of the Russian Empire did not give any special territorial acquisitions. No, there are many absolutely fantastic maps of the Ukrainian People's Republic, covering not only Galicia, but also the Kuban.
However, in fact, the UNR was only one of the state entities created on the territory of the Ukrainian provinces of the Russian Empire. In 1917, this territory was divided among four state entities.
In 1918, this territory was united by the German occupation administration, which created the puppet state of Hetman Skoropadsky. Hetman, later, had to flee with the German occupiers...
The revived UNR managed to unite with the Western Ukrainian People's Republic, but this unification was formal, since it was at that moment that the ZUNR did not have its own territory, but was represented by the Petrushevich government and the Ukrainian Galician army ... Moreover, after the “unification”, the ZUNR continued to wage its war against the Poles , later finding it possible to cooperate with the "Muscovites" - first with the whites, and then with the reds.
The UNR, in fact, did not control its territory, since, besides itself, the quasi-state of Father Makhno, the White Guard state-army, was located on it, in the end, the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic created in March 1919. It was not for nothing that it was said that "in the car - the Directory, under the car - the territory."
Petliura, by the way, ended up cooperating with the Poles, finally refusing both the “evil” from the ZUNR and the territory of Western Ukraine.
In the end, in 1920-1922, most of the Ukrainian lands (including Transnistria) were united as part of the Ukrainian SSR, which, in turn, became part of the USSR. Part of the Ukrainian lands remained under Polish and Romanian occupation.
Historical borders of Ukraine within the USSR
Since 1939, a new stage of the unification of Ukrainian lands began.
In September 1939, the USSR liberated the territories of Western Ukraine, previously captured by Poland. Now the Soviet Union is scolded for "aggression" against Poland, condemned "cooperation" with Hitler and condemned the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, but, for some reason, they do not propose to draw legal conclusions from this. The legal conclusions should be to return the territory of Galicia, Volhynia and part of Podolia to Poland, which “innocently suffered from Soviet aggression”. Strange - we condemn the annexation of Galicia to Ukraine, but we are in no hurry to give it back.
Something else is even more surprising… The same people who condemn the “Soviet occupation” of Western Ukraine are also simultaneously condemning the Polish occupation of the same territories in 1918. However, they are at least tolerant of their re-occupation by the Poles in 1920...
In 1940, the USSR delivered an ultimatum to Romania, demanding the return of the lands occupied in 1918. Romania ceded the territories of Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia.
A separate story took place in Transcarpathia, which, after the collapse of Czechoslovakia, proclaimed its independence in the status of Carpathian Ukraine (not at all striving, of course, to join Soviet Ukraine - there was no other at that time). It lasted only a few days, being occupied by Hungary.
In 1945, Transcarpathia was liberated from the German-Hungarian invaders, returned to Czechoslovakia, and then passed to the USSR.
Note that we are talking about a region that historically for several centuries was part of Hungary and even now does not territorially associate itself with Ukraine (a common expression for Transcarpathians is “to go to Ukraine”, for example, to Lviv).
And, finally, in 1954 Crimea was transferred from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR. The official reason is "considering the commonality of the economy, territorial proximity and close economic and cultural ties between the Crimean region and the Ukrainian SSR." Together with Crimea, Sevastopol also became part of Ukraine, although the legal grounds for the transfer of the city of republican subordination were not obvious. However, until the first half of the 90s, the issue of the status of the city was not raised, and later it was decided in favor of Ukraine.
However, the process also went in other directions. In 1940, Transnistria (Moldavian ASSR) was transferred to Moldova. In 1945, part of the territory of Western Ukraine, including the cities of Przemysl and Kholm, went to Poland. When clarifying the administrative boundaries within the USSR, some areas were transferred to Russia, and some, on the contrary, to Ukraine.
Historical borders of Ukraine during the period of independence
However, in the name of Euro-Atlantic integration, Viktor Yushchenko sacrificed part of the continental shelf in favor of Romania. Although there were every reason not to give up the shelf with energy deposits. To do this, it was enough not to recognize the territory as disputed ...
conclusions
Historically, the territory of Ukraine is represented by approximately 8 regions of central Ukraine.
Western Ukraine (including Transcarpathia) could not be annexed and held by any Ukrainian authorities - there were not enough forces. Even when separate Ukrainian states were created on this territory, they could not maintain control over the territory. It turned out to be on the shoulder of tsarist Russia and the Stalinist USSR.
The south of Ukraine, Donbass and Crimea were annexed by the Russian Empire and transferred to Ukraine by the USSR. Actually, the territory of the "largest state in Europe" was formed by Catherine II and Stalin, and the relative independence, which generally allowed talking about some kind of "borders of Ukraine", she received from the hands of Lenin.
So people who talk about "Russian" and "Soviet" occupation should be ready to revise the historical borders of Ukraine - in favor of other victims of the "Russian" and "Soviet" "occupation". For, so to speak, our and your freedom... Or, nevertheless, "Freedom"?
Vasily Stoyakin, director of the Center for Political Marketing
Source of information about the historical borders of Ukraine: dnepr.info
Ukraine and Little Russia are one and the same.
historical reality
Little Russia is one of the historical regional names of Central and Left-Bank Ukraine (Hetmanate) in the second half of the 17th–18th centuries.
"Little Russia" in the past was never called either the entire territory of modern Ukraine, or all the lands inhabited by Ukrainians or their ancestors. "Little Russia" is a later name than "Ukraine".
The name "Little Russia" goes back to "Little Russia", under which in the XIV-XV centuries. meant the Galician and Kyiv metropolises, and in the XV-XVI centuries. sometimes the lands of Russia, which are part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. In the first half of the XVII century. this name distinguished the Kiev Metropolis from the Moscow Patriarchate (see: ""; "").
From the middle of the XVII century. the name "Malorossiya" ("Little Russia") is applied to the state created by Bohdan Khmelnytsky in the Dnieper Ukraine (also known as the "Zaporozhian Host" or "Hetmanate"). (Look: ). The hetman was at the head of the Zaporozhye Army. Not only the Cossack army was subordinate to him, but also the local administration, formed by the Cossack foreman. Geographically, the Hetmanate was divided into regiments, and those in turn into hundreds. Accordingly, there were regimental and hundreds of cities.
After the Andrusovo truce of 1667, the "Zaporozhian Army" was officially divided along the Dnieper between the Moscow kingdom and the Commonwealth. The autonomous status and the name "Little Russia" were preserved for the left-bank part, which was ceded to Russia. Gradually, the Russian Empire nullified the autonomy of the Hetmanate: in 1764, the last hetman, Kirill Razumovsky, was forced to resign, and in 1781, the regimental territorial structure was abolished. The Cossack foreman is integrated into the nobility, having received the opportunity for career realization on the scale of the empire. (Look: )
On the site of the Hetmanate, the Little Russian province (1764-1781) was formed, which was eventually divided into Novgorod-Seversk, Chernigov and Kiev governorships, and then recreated again in 1796. Then in 1802 the Little Russian province was finally divided into Chernigov and Poltava provinces. In 1802–1856 there was also the Little Russian Governor General (since 1836, in addition to the two mentioned, it also included the Kharkov province).
In the XIX - early XX centuries. "Little Russia" was interpreted in very different ways: both as a name that brings Ukraine closer to Russia, and as different from it. On the one hand, this concept fit into the outline of imperial ideas about the “triune Russia” and the “triune Russian people” (consisting of Great Russians, Little Russians and Belarusians). On the other hand, among educated Little Russian circles there was a regional patriotism fueled by memories of the former autonomous status and the Cossack freemen. From these nostalgic experiences, the Ukrainian national movement was born.
Despite the fact that in tsarist times the name “Little Russians” was firmly entrenched in Ukrainians, “Little Russia” itself, as a historical region, did not extend to the southern and western Ukrainian lands. She remained within the Left Bank. To designate the entire area of settlement of the Little Russians, a different concept was needed, which became Ukraine.
By the beginning of the 20th century, a negative stereotype had formed in the Ukrainian national movement regarding the name "Little Russia", because it became associated with a provincial inferiority complex - "little Russian".
Geography of different names of Ukraine and its regions
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Little Russia (tracing paper from the Middle Greek Μικρὰ Ῥωσσία), Little Russia, later Little Russia, less often Little Russia - the name that appeared in Byzantium at the beginning of the XIV century to determine the Galicia-Volyn land in church and administrative terms. Also the name of the territory of the Dnieper region in the XV-XVI centuries and the Left-bank Ukraine after its entry as an autonomy into the Russian kingdom, after the oath of the Ukrainian Cossacks at the Pereyaslav Rada in the XVII century. In the Russian Empire from the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century, it was used as the name of a historical region and the Little Russian province.
During the XIV-XVI centuries, along with the former name of Russia (Greek Ρωσία - Russia), new ones appear in the sources - to designate its two parts: Great Russia subordinate to the Golden Horde and part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Lesser Russia. Little Russia and Great Russia originated from the Greek names Μικρά Ρωσία - Mikra Rosia and Μακρά Ρωσία - Makra Rosia, which were used in the church-administrative practice of Byzantium from the beginning of the XIV century. The Greeks, by analogy with the terms "Greece Minor" and "Great Greece" (an area with ancient Greek colonies), under "Little Russia" understood the territory of the Dnieper - that is, the core, that place, "where it came from" the state. And under "Great Russia" - all other lands that were once conquered or subjugated and were part of Kievan Rus. This Hellenized version of the name was accepted and popularized by the official circles of the Russian kingdom. According to Oleg Trubachev, the name "small" arose as a contrast to the already established name "Great Russia", which referred to more northern lands and meant "outer", "new" Russia. Also indicative are the names of cities in the "Great Russia" - Veliky Novgorod, Veliky Rostov, in contrast to southern Novgorod and Rostov. "Small" in this case means "original", original Russia, and "Great" - external, colonized Russia. In addition to Great and Lesser Greece, in ancient times there was Lesser and Greater Macedonia, where the capital of Alexander the Great, the city of Pella (on the territory of modern Greece), was called “Great” Macedonia, and all the lands he conquered were called “Great”. Also in Poland, since ancient times, similar terms have been used in relation to the first capital of the Poles, Krakow - Lesser Poland, Lesser Poland Voivodeship (Polish: Województwo małopolskie) and Greater Poland (Polish: Wielkopolska), all lands that were part of Poland.
For the first time the term "Little Russia" occurs at the beginning of the 14th century in Byzantium to define the modern Western Ukrainian lands in church-administrative practice. The Galician metropolis, established in 1303, covered six dioceses: Galician, Przemysl, Vladimir, Kholmsk, Lutsk and Turov (that is, also part of the territory of modern Belarus), which in Byzantine sources were called Little Russia (Greek Μικρά Ρωσία - Mikra Rosia ) as opposed to Great Russia (Μακρά Ρωσία - Makra Rosia), which from 1354 was understood as the territory of 19 dioceses under the rule of the Kiev Metropolitan, whose residence (seat) was from 1299-1300 in Vladimir, and from 1325-1461 in Moscow.
Prince of Galicia and Volhynia, King of Russia Yuri II Boleslav in a letter to the Grand Master of the German Order Dietrich, dated October 20, 1335, called himself “dux totius Rusiæ Minoris” (“Prince of All Little Russia”), although he and his predecessors called themselves "Rex Russiæ" ("King of Russia"), "Dux totius terræ Russiæ" ("Prince of all the Russian land"), "Dux et Dominus Russiæ" ("Prince and Ruler of Russia"). Ultimately, the names "Great Russia" and "Little Russia" came to the official level - the Patriarch of Constantinople established (1361) two metropolises, one in "Little Russia" ("Mikra Rosia"), with a center in Novgorodka and Galich, the other in "Great Russia", with the center in Kyiv.
The Polish king Casimir the Great was called "the king of Lyakhia and Little Russia", since he extended his power to a significant part of the possessions of Yuri Boleslav. According to the scheme of Mikhail Grushevsky, “Little Russia” is the Galicia-Volyn state, and with its death, the entry of its lands into Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, this name “falls out of use”.
Hetmanate
Starting from the middle of the 17th century, the name Little Russia was used in the church correspondence between Kyiv and Moscow. In the chronicles and on geographical maps, almost until the end of the 17th century, the Western Ukrainian lands were called Rus (Russia), Russian land (Ziemia Ruska) or Red Russia (Russia Rubra). Contarini calls Lower Russia the lands where the cities of Lutsk, Zhytomyr, Belgorod (now the village of Belogorodka, 10 km from Kyiv) and Kyiv are located.
After the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654, the Russian tsar changed his title to "All the Great and Little Russia", to which, over time, the addition "White" was added. Since that time, the name Little Russia (Little Russia) also began to spread in government correspondence, chronicles and literature, in particular, it is used by Bogdan Khmelnitsky: “... The very capital of Kyiv, also part of this Little Russia of ours”, Ivan Sirko. The rector of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, Innokenty Gizel, in the Kiev Synopsis (1674) formulated the understanding of the Russian people as a triune people consisting of Great Russians, Little Russians and Belarusians, and the state power of the Moscow State in all three parts - Great, Little and White Russia - is the only legal, since the Moscow princes, and then the kings, descended from Alexander Nevsky, who "was the prince of Kyiv from the Russian land, Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky." The term "Little Russian Ukraine" appeared in 1677 [source not specified 845 days] and then took root in the hetman's office and chronicles. The terms "Little Russia" and "Little Russia" are used in the annals of Samuil Velichko, the chronograph according to the list of L. Bobolinsky, "Skarbnitsa" by Ivan Galyatovsky (1676).
However, on the geographical maps of the 18th century, published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1736-1738, and in the Russian Atlas of 1745, the name Little Russia is not found.
After the liquidation of the hetmanate in 1764, the Little Russian province with the administrative center in the city of Glukhov was created from a part of the Left-Bank Ukraine. In 1775, the Little Russian and Kyiv provinces were united, the provincial center was moved to Kyiv. In 1781, the Little Russian province was divided into three governorships (provinces) - Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversk and Kiev. In 1796, the Little Russian province was recreated, Chernigov was appointed the provincial center, after which it was divided again in 1802 into two provinces: Poltava and Chernigov. The names Little Russia, Little Russian, Little Russians were used in relation to the entire southwestern region during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
The name Little Russia until 1917 was semi-officially used for the collective designation of Volyn, Kiev, Podolsk, Poltava, Kharkov and Chernigov provinces. That is how the Left-Bank Ukraine, mother and "Little Russia", was called Grigory Skovoroda, and Sloboda Ukraine - his own aunt, which indicated the absence of a pejorative connotation in the term "Little Russia".
Taras Shevchenko in his personal diary (for 1857-1858) uses the words "Little Russia / Little Russian" 17 times and only 4 times "Ukraine" (while he does not use the adjective "Ukrainian" at all); at the same time, in letters to like-minded Ukrainophiles 17 times “Ukraine” and 5 times “Little Russia / Little Russian”, and in his poetry he uses only the term “Ukraine”.
The cultural and historical specificity of Little Russia, as well as the regional patriotism of the Little Russians, were quite acceptable in the eyes of the supporters of the concept of a large Russian nation, as long as they did not come into conflict with this concept. Moreover, in the first half of the 19th century, Little Russian specificity aroused keen interest in St. Petersburg and Moscow as a more colorful, romantic version of Russianness.
The Ukrainian historian Mikhail Maksimovich in his work of 1868 refuted the myth that had formed in Polish historiography: attributing the name “Little Russia” to the Moscow state after 1654, dividing the Russian people into “Rus, Ruthenians and Muscovites”. Ukrainian historians Nikolai Kostomarov, Dmitry Bagalei, Vladimir Antonovich admitted that “Little Russia” or “Southern Russia” during the struggle between the Moscow State and the Commonwealth was an ethnonym for the “Little Russian / South Russian” people, and “Ukraine” was used as a toponym denoting the outlying lands both states.
The name appeared at the beginning of the 14th century as a Byzantine church-administrative definition of the Galicia-Volyn and Turov-Pinsk principalities. Since the 16th century, the name of all Russian lands as part of the Commonwealth (later White Russia was singled out from them). Since the 17th century, Little Russia has been one of the official names for the Hetmanate. Later it was used to refer to the Russian Empire and Little Russian Governorate. The term was practically not used in Soviet historiography.
However, other sources indicate a different interpretation of the origin of the term "Little Russia". So, according to G.F. Miller, the term “Little Russia” arose when this territory was part of Poland: “In the discussion of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which was under the rule of the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich I, who lived with the aforementioned King of Poland, Kazimir, at one time, it became more widespread than before, the Kiev region could be called Little Russia, by which name the Poles called it, and from Polyakov this name was adopted and put into use in Great Russia, and so they began to be Great, Little, White and Black Russia, of which three Poles and Lithuania in those unfortunate times, when the Russian State was under the Tatar yoke, were captured. (Historical writings on Little Russia and Little Russians by G.F. Miller, Moscow, University Printing House, 1840)
Galicia-Volyn principality
For the first time the term "Little Russia" occurs at the beginning of the 14th century in Byzantium to define the modern Western Ukrainian lands in church-administrative practice. The Galician Metropolis, established in 1303, covered six dioceses: Galician, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volyn, Kholm, Lutsk and Turov (that is, also part of the territory of modern Belarus), which in Byzantine sources were called Little Russia (Greek. Μικρά Ῥωσία - Mikrá Rhōsía) as opposed to Great Russia ( Μεγάλη Ῥωσία - Megálē Rhōsía), which since 1354 was understood as the territory of 19 dioceses under the rule of the Kiev Metropolitan, whose residence ("seat") was in Vladimir-on-Klyazma in 1300-1325, and in the period from 1325 to 1461 in Moscow.
However, on the geographical maps of the 18th century, published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1736-1738, and in the Russian Atlas of 1745, the name Little Russia is not found.
Little Russian identity
The Little Russian national idea fit perfectly into the general imperial and Soviet cultural and ethnic concept.
Little Russia as a historical region of the Russian Empire
After the liquidation of the Hetmanate in 1764, the Little Russian Governorate with the administrative center in the city of Glukhov was created from a part of the Left-bank Ukraine. In 1775, the Little Russian and Kyiv provinces were united, the provincial center was moved to Kyiv. In 1781, the Little Russian Governorate was divided into three viceroyalties (provinces) - Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversk and Kiev. In 1796, the Little Russian province was recreated, Chernigov was appointed the provincial center, after which it was divided again in 1802 into two provinces: Poltava and Chernigov. In 1802, the Little Russian Governor General was established as part of these provinces. In 1835, the Kharkov province was annexed to it. Until 1837, the residence of the Governor-General was Poltava, since 1837 - Kharkov. Abolished in 1856.
Titles Little Russia, Little Russian, Little Russians were used in relation to the entire southwestern region during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Name Little Russia until 1917 it was used semi-officially for the collective designation of Volhynia, Kiev, Podolsk, Kharkiv, Poltava and Chernihiv Governorates. That is how, mother and "Little Russia", Left-bank Ukraine was called Grigory Skovoroda, and Sloboda Ukraine - his own aunt, which indicated the absence of a pejorative connotation in the term "Little Russia".
The cultural and historical specificity of Little Russia, as well as the regional patriotism of the Little Russians, were quite acceptable in the eyes of the supporters of the concept of a large Russian nation, as long as they did not come into conflict with this concept. Moreover, in the first half of the 19th century, Little Russian specificity aroused keen interest in St. Petersburg and Moscow as a more colorful, romantic version of Russianness.
- Russia. History: Little Russia// Encyclopedic Dictionary of F. A. Brockhaus and I. A. Efron. - St. Petersburg: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907.
Throughout the period of the entry of the territory of modern Ukraine into the Russian Empire, the term Little Russia in a broad sense was used as a synonym for Ukraine, both in everyday life and at the official level. In this case, the term Little Russia could extend both to the lands of the middle Dnieper region and Sloboda Ukraine. In a narrow sense, the term Little Russia continued to be used in relation to the lands of the Left-Bank Hetmanate.
At the same time, already in the second half of the 19th century, the name Ukraine becomes more widely used in everyday life, private and public life and almost completely replaces all other designations (including the term "Little Russia").
Ukraine after 1917
After 1917, the historical names "Little Russia", "Little Russia" and words derived from it were practically withdrawn from historiographic use in the Ukrainian SSR, RSFSR and the USSR and had an almost negative connotation. In the course of the All-Union Census of 1926, census takers were instructed not to record the respondents as Little Russians under any circumstances.
In the Ukrainian historical literature of the period of the Ukrainian SSR, the term "Little Russia" was also used quite rarely. [ ]
Term Little Russia in our time
Both in Soviet and independent Ukraine, the term "Little Russia" is rarely used in historiography. As historical designations, the historical names of the regions of Ukraine are usually used (Poltava region, Chernihiv region, etc.). It is allowed, however, to use the term "Little Russia" as a reference to past administrative-territorial units, for example, in articles and monographs about the Little Russian province, the Little Russian Governor General, etc.
see also
Notes
- Little Russia - Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by Max Fasmer
- Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. Little Russia
- Little Russia- article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
- Florya B.N. On some features of the development of the ethnic identity of the Eastern Slavs in the Middle Ages - Early Modern Times // Russia-Ukraine: history of relationships / Ed. ed. A. I. Miller, V. F. Reprintsev, M., 1997. S. 9-27
- Little Russia (Russian). TSB 3rd Edition. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
- AV Kartashev Essays on the history of the Russian Church. Volume 1 (indefinite) (unavailable link). Retrieved May 4, 2011. Archived from the original on December 22, 2011.
- Ukraine. Chronology of development. - volume 3. - K., KRION, 2009, ISBN 978-966-16-5818-8, p.98-99
- Rusina O. V. Ukraine under the Tatars and Lithuania. - Kiev: Vydavnichiy dіm "Alternative", 1998. - S. 274. (Ukrainian)
- Hrushevsky M.S. History of Ukraine-Rus - K.: "Naukova Dumka", 1994. - T. I. - S. 1−2. (ukr.)
- Trubachev O. N. In search of unity. − 3rd ed., add. - M.: "Nauka", 2005. - S. 86.
- Quoted from: Rusina O. V. Ukraine under the Tatars and Lithuania. - Kiev: Vydavnichiy dіm "Alternative", 1998. - p.276.
- Part III, section II, article 1. ZAHARIA KOPISTENSKY. CHRESTOMATY OF OLD UKRAINIAN LITERATURE (indefinite) . izbornyk.org.ua. Retrieved April 9, 2019.
At the beginning of the XIX century. there was an official consolidation of the boundaries of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe. The St. Petersburg Conventions of 1824 defined the borders with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54 ° 40 "N on the coast, and the Russians - to the south. The border of Russian and British possessions ran along the coast from 54 ° N to 60 ° N at a distance of 10 miles from the edge of the ocean taking into account all the bends of the coast.The St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826 established the Russian-Norwegian border.
Academic expeditions of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Sherer in 1802-1804. to the north-west of Russia, to Belarus, the Baltic states and were devoted mainly to mineralogical research.
The period of geographical discoveries in the inhabited European part of Russia is over. In the 19th century expeditionary research and their scientific generalization were mainly thematic. Of these, one can name the zoning (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal bands, proposed by E.F. Kankrin in 1834; botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Caspian Seas, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by K. M. Baer; the work of N. A. (1855) on the animal world of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the animal world and physical and geographical conditions, and also established patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil studies of VV in the zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V. Dokuchaev, organized by the Forest Department for a comprehensive study of the nature of the steppes and finding ways to deal with. In this expedition, the stationary research method was used for the first time.
Caucasus
The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia necessitated the exploration of new Russian lands, which were poorly studied. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences, led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. Kh. Lenz, explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus, determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks of the Caucasus. In 1844-1865. the natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G. V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Bolshoy and Dagestan, the Colchis lowland, and compiled the first general orographic scheme of the Caucasus.
Ural
The description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836, is among the works that developed the geographical idea of the Urals. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; the publication of "The Natural History of the Orenburg Territory" by E. A. Eversman (1840), which gives a comprehensive description of the nature of this territory with a well-founded natural division; Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Gofman, V.G. Bragin), during which the Konstantinov Kamen peak was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled that served as the basis for mapping the studied part of the Urals . A notable event was the journey in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and to the shores of the Caspian Sea.
Siberia
In the 19th century continued exploration of Siberia, many areas of which were studied very poorly. In Altai, in the 1st half of the century, the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P. A. Chikhachev carried out physical-geographical and geological studies.
In 1843-1844. A. F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East, for the first time information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr, the Stanovoy Range. Based on travel materials, A.F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published "Journey to the North and East of Siberia" - one of the best examples of systematic reports on the nature of the studied territories. This work gives a description of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the features of the relief of Central Siberia, the peculiarity of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, and gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.
In 1853-1855. R. K. Maak and A. K. Zondhagen investigated the geology and life of the population of the Central Yakut Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the river.
In 1855-1862. The Siberian expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia.
A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of the south of Eastern Siberia. In 1858, L. E. Schwartz carried out geographical research in the Sayans. During them, the topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P. A. Kropotkin, who paid special attention to the relief and. He explored the rivers Oka, Amur, Ussuri, ranges, discovered the Patom Highlands. The Khamar-Daban ridge, the coasts, the Angara region, the Selenga basin, were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky explored the basins of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska and Olenyok rivers, and I. D. Chersky studied the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska. Geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition N. P. Bobyr, L. A. Yachevsky, Ya. P. Prein. The study of Sayanskaya in 1903 was continued by V. L. Popov. In 1910, he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.
In 1891-1892. during his last expedition, I. D. Chersky explored the Nerskoye Plateau, discovered three high mountain ranges Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistai and Tomuskhai behind the Verkhoyansk Range.
Far East
Research continued on Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and the seas adjacent to them. In 1805, I. F. Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811, V. M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849, G. I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur mouth for large ships. In 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky and others continued research, Sakhalin, adjacent parts of the mainland. In 1860-1867. Sakhalin was explored by F.B., P.P. Glen, G.V. Shebunin. In 1852-1853. N. K. Boshnyak investigated and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, the Everon and Chukchagirskoye lakes, the Bureinsky Range, and the Khadzhi Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).
In 1842-1845. A.F. Middendorf and V.V. Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.
In the 50-60s. 19th century coastal parts of Primorye were explored: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posyet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin surveyed the northern coast of the Sea of Japan and Peter the Great Bay. The Lower Amur and the northern part of the Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budischev. In 1858, M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. and Ussuri were studied by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869. made a major trip to the Ussuri region. He carried out comprehensive studies of the nature of the basins of the Ussuri and Suchan rivers, crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.
middle Asia
As individual parts and Central Asia were annexed to the Russian Empire, and sometimes even anticipating it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists investigated and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, the Common Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was studied by E. A. Eversman. In 1825-1836. conducted a description of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoy Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau G. S. Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. AI Shrenk studied East Kazakhstan.
In 1840-1845. the Balkhash-Alakol basin was discovered (A.I. Shrenk, T.F. Nifantiev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantyev conducted the first surveys of lakes, Zaisan. In 1848-1849. A. I. Butakov carried out the first survey, discovered a number of islands, Chernyshev Bay.
Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the 1857 expedition of I. G. Borshov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba River basin, and the Bolshie Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. Steppes and deserts are considered by him as natural geographical complexes and mutual relations between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation are analyzed.
Since the 1840s studies of the highlands of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845. A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857. P.P. Semyonov laid the foundation for the scientific study of the Tien Shan. The heyday of research in the mountains of Central Asia falls on the period of the expeditionary leadership of P.P. Semyonov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867. N. A. Severtsov explored the Kyrgyz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskem and Kakshaal-Too ridges, in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kuhistan, Alay and Zaalay ranges. N. A. Severtsov, A. I. Skassi discovered the Rushansky Range and the Fedchenko Glacier (1877-1879). The conducted research allowed to single out the Pamirs as a separate mountain system.
Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V. A. Obruchev in 1886-1888. (desert of Karakum and ancient valley of Uzboy).
Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902. spent .
North and Arctic
At the beginning of the XIX century. the opening of the New Siberian Islands. In 1800-1806. Ya. Sannikov carried out inventories of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered the island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811. visited by the expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom. In 1815, M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilievsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823. P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental studies, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the New Siberian Islands, explored and described the islands of Semyonovsky, Vasilyevsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenyok rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.
In 1820-1824. F. P. Wrangel, in very difficult natural conditions, traveled through the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukotka Peninsula), and predicted the existence.
Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotzebue discovered a large bay in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska, named after him. In 1818-1819. the eastern coast of the Bering Sea was explored by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the Alaska Delta-Yukon was discovered. In 1835-1838. the lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were investigated by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L. A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior of Alaska. In 1829-1835. the coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F. Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokuim (Kuskokwim) Range. In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.
The archipelago has been intensively explored. In 1821-1824. F. P. Litke on the brig Novaya Zemlya explored, described and mapped the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to make an inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833. the first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the southern island of Novaya Zemlya was made by P.K. Pakhtusov. In 1834-1835. P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A. K. Tsivolka and S. A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the North Island up to 74.5 ° N. sh., Matochkin Shar Strait is described in detail, Pakhtusov Island was discovered. The description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V. A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829. managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from the Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The studies carried out made it possible to begin studying the vegetation, fauna and geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K. M. Baer, 1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a major expedition in 1837, A.I. Shrenk explored the Chesh Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, the island, the Pai-Khoi Range, the polar Urals. Exploration of this area in 1840-1845. continued A. A. Keyserling, who conducted the survey, explored the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. Comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula, the North Siberian Lowland were carried out in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850. The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi Ridge was thoroughly explored.
In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, the inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American explorer R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and for the first time explored the interior of the island.
In 1901, the Russian icebreaker "" visited, under the command of S. O. Makarov. In 1913-1914. a Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov wintered in the archipelago. At the same time, a group of members of the distressed expedition of G. L. Brusilov visited the place on the ship “St. Anna”, headed by navigator V.I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all the energy was directed to the preservation of life, V.I. Albanov proved that Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which appeared on the map of J. Payer, do not exist.
In 1878-1879. For two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N. A. E. on a small sail-steam vessel “Vega” for the first time passed the Northern Sea Route from west to east. This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.
In 1913, the Northern Hydrographic Expedition led by B. A. Vilkitsky on the icebreaking ships Taimyr and Vaigach, exploring the possibilities of passing north of Taimyr, encountered solid ice and, following their edge to the north, discovered the islands called the Earth Emperor Nicholas II (now - Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and next year - southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now -). The western and northern shores remained completely unknown.
Russian Geographical Society
The Russian Geographical Society (RGO), founded in 1845 (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO), has made great contributions to the development of domestic cartography.
In 1881, the American polar explorer J. De Long discovered Jeannette, Henrietta, and Bennett Islands northeast of New Siberia Island. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886. the study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the New Siberian Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.
Already at the beginning of 1852, it published its first twenty-five-verst (1:1,050,000) map of the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, compiled on the basis of materials from the Ural expedition of the Russian Geographical Society in 1847-1850. For the first time, the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge was depicted on it with great accuracy and detail.
The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river regions of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and the Yenisei, and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).
Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGS, led by N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V. I. Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov and V. A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the survey of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and photographed (of which over 30,000 km are accounted for by N. M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined, and the heights of 3,533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as the lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this greatly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.
The heyday of the expeditionary activities of the IRGO falls on 1873-1914, when the Grand Duke Konstantin was at the head of the society, and P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia and other regions of the country; two polar stations have been established. Since the mid 1880s. The expeditionary activity of the society is increasingly specialized in individual branches - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.
The IRGS made a great contribution to the study of the country's relief. A hypsometric commission of the IRGO was created to process the leveling and make a hypsometric map. In 1874, the IRGS conducted, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, the Aral-Caspian leveling: from Karatamak (on the northwestern shore of the Aral Sea) through Ustyurt to the Dead Kultuk Bay of the Caspian Sea, and in 1875 and 1877. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A. A. Tillo to compile the “map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50 thousand elevation marks were used to compile it obtained as a result of leveling. The map made a revolution in the ideas about the structure of the relief of this territory. It presented in a new way the orography of the European part of the country, which has not changed in its main features to the present day, for the first time the Central Russian and Volga Uplands were depicted. In 1894, the Forest Department, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo with the participation of S. N., organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, on lakes).
The Military Topographic Service, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, carried out a large number of pioneer reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps of many territories were compiled, which were previously "white spots" on the map.
Mapping of the territory in the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries.
Topographic and geodetic works
In 1801-1804. “His Majesty's Own Map Depot” issued the first state multi-sheet (on 107 sheets) map at a scale of 1:840,000, covering almost the entire European Russia and called the “Hundred-sheet Map”. Its content was based mainly on the materials of the General Land Survey.
In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff, under the leadership of Major General F. F. Steinchel (Steingel), with the extensive use of Swedish-Finnish officers-topographers, carried out a large-scale topographic survey of the so-called Old Finland, i.e., areas annexed to Russia along the Nishtadt (1721) and Abosky (1743) to the world. Survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.
After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were merged. At the same time, the Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for the training of professional topographers - a military school, founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanyem Topographic Corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.
In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with officers-topographers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.
Since 1819, topographic surveys on a scale of 1:21,000 began in Russia, based on triangulation and carried out mainly with the help of a beaker. In 1844 they were replaced by surveys on a scale of 1:42,000.
On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Staff of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping has become one of the main tasks of military topographers. The remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer F. F. Schubert was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.
In 1816-1852. in Russia, the largest triangulation work for that time was carried out, stretching 25 ° 20 "along the meridian (together with the Scandinavian triangulation).
Under the direction of F. F. Schubert and K. I. Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on the materials of these surveys in the 20-30s. 19th century semi-topographic (semi-topographic) maps were compiled and engraved for the provinces on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.
In 1821, the military topographic depot began compiling an overview topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1:420,000), which was extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten-layout of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on the creation of the map continued intermittently until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half sheets).
A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of military topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829. detailed maps were drawn up on a scale of 1:210,000 of the Baku province, the Talysh Khanate, the Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.
In 1828-1832. a survey was also made of Wallachia, which became a model of the work of its time, as it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were summarized in an atlas of 1:16,000. The total survey area reached 100,000 sq. m. verst.
From the 30s. geodetic and boundary work began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulation became the basis for creating accurate topographic maps of the Crimea. Geodetic networks were developed in Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and in other areas.
In 1833, the head of the KVT, General F. F. Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition to the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points related to them trigonometrically, provided a reliable justification for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.
From 1857 to 1862 under the guidance and at the expense of the IRGO in the Military Topographic Depot, work was carried out to compile and publish on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasus region on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map was created for the first time in Russia in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the initial meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was repeatedly reprinted.
In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst and forty-verst orographic maps of the Caucasus were published.
Among the best cartographic works of the IRGS is the “Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their environs” compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, on the proposal of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.
The Caucasian Military Topographic Department, under the leadership of General I. I. Stebnitsky, conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.
In 1867, a cartographic institution was opened at the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin, opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.
Relief maps occupied a special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO. A large relief map was completed in 1868 and exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances at a scale of 1:420,000, and for vertical distances at 1:84,000.
The Caucasian Military Topographic Department, under the leadership of I. I. Stebnitsky, compiled a 20-verst map of the Transcaspian Territory based on astronomical, geodetic and topographic works.
Work was also carried out on topographic and geodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. So, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in Peter the Great Bay.
The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at that time. Such, in particular, is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland attached to it” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V. P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).
Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographic service has been the creation of the Military Topographic Map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of the military topographic map had been published, and by 1917, 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was rendered in strokes.
In 1848-1866. under the leadership of Lieutenant General A. I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps and atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of about 345,000 square meters. verst. Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst to an inch (1:42,000), Yaroslavl - two versts to an inch (1:84,000), Simbirsk and Nizhny Novgorod - three versts to an inch (1:126,000) and the Penza province - on a scale of eight miles to an inch (1:336,000). Based on the results of the surveys, the IRGO published multi-color topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84,000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1:336,000).
The surveys of Mende had an undeniable impact on the further improvement of the methods of state mapping. In 1872, the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map at a scale of 2 versts in an inch (1:84,000), which was the most detailed source of information about the area used in troops and the national economy until the 30s. 20th century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow and. It was one of the first Russian topographic maps, on which the relief was depicted by contour lines.
In 1869-1885. a detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one verst in an inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. One-verst maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, the Crimea, the Caucasus and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.
By the 60s. 19th century the Special Map of European Russia by F. F. Schubert on a scale of 10 versts in an inch is very outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed captain of the General Staff I.A. works. In 1872, all 152 sheets of the map were completed. The ten-versustka was repeatedly reprinted and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.
By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments traveled more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and eye surveys. According to their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.
In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic work in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the KVT, General N. D. Artamonov. It was decided to develop a new class 1 triangulation according to a specific program proposed by General I. I. Pomerantsev. The implementation of the KVT program began in 1910. By 1914, the main part of the work had been completed.
By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys was carried out on the territory of Poland completely, in the south of Russia (the triangle of Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces partially; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partially in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in the Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, to the east of the survey sites of half- and verst scales.
The results of topographic surveys of the previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: a half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21,000); verst map of the Western border area, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42,000); a military topographic two-verst map (1:84,000), a three-verst map (1:126,000) with a relief expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1:420,000); 25-verst military road map of European Russia (1:1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map (1:1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and adjacent foreign states.
In addition to the above maps, the Military Topographic Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and the states adjacent to them, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of the entire Asian Russia.
The corps of military topographers over the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918) carried out a huge amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: geodetic points were identified - 63,736; astronomical points (in latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis at various scales over an area of 7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out over an area of 506,247 km2. In 1917, the supply of the Russian army was 6739 nomenclatures of maps of various scales.
In general, by 1917, a huge field survey material had been obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works had been created, however, the topographic coverage of the territory of Russia was uneven, a significant part of the territory remained topographically unexplored.
Exploration and mapping of the seas and oceans
Russia's achievements in the study of the World Ocean were also significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting from the first voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the leadership of Yu. V. Lisyansky, they made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic knowledge of the World Ocean.
In addition to the hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian Navy, participants in round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among which were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F. P. Wrangel, A. K. Etolin and M D. Tebenkov, continuously updated their knowledge of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and improved the navigational charts of these regions. Especially great was the contribution of M. D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed “Atlas of the Northwestern coasts of America from to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the Northeastern coast of Asia”, published by the St. Petersburg Naval Academy in 1852.
In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the finalization of geographical ideas about the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 20-30s. 19th century expeditions of F. P. Litke, P. K. Pakhtusov, K. M. Baer and A. K. Tsivolka, who laid the foundations for the physical and geographical study of these seas and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. To solve the problem of developing transport links of the European Pomorye, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most productive of which were the Pechora expedition of I.N. Ivanov (1824) and the inventory of I.N. Ivanov and I.A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps compiled by them had a solid astronomical and geodetic justification. Studies of sea coasts and islands in the north of Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago by Russian industrialists, as well as the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. during the expedition led by M. M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, who explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole was created for the first time, as well as the mainland sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands was made. In the 20s. Yanskaya (1820-1824) under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and Kolymskaya (1821-1824) - under the leadership of F.P. Wrangel - expeditions were equipped in the same areas. These expeditions carried out on an extended scale the work program of the expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom. They were supposed to survey the banks from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenyok River to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands group. In the eastern part of Wrangel's map, according to local residents, an island was marked with the inscription "Mountains are seen from Cape Yakan in the summer." This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I.F. Kruzenshtern (1826) and G.A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867, it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and in commemoration of the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer named after Wrangel. The results of the expeditions of P. F. Anzhu and F. P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 handwritten maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.
Not only scientific, but also of enormous geopolitical significance for Russia were carried out in the middle of the 19th century. G. I. Nevelsky and his followers intensive marine expeditionary research in Okhotsk and. Although the insular position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, however, the problem of accessibility of the Amur mouth for ships from the south and north was finally and positively resolved only by G. I. Nevelsky. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur Region and Primorye, showing the enormous potential of these richest regions, provided, as G. I. Nevelsky's studies proved, with end-to-end water communications leading to the Pacific Ocean. These studies themselves were carried out by travelers sometimes at their own peril and risk in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G. I. Nevelsky paved the way for the return of Russia to the Amur region under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and joining the Empire of Primorye (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographical research in the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in the boundaries in the Far East in accordance with the treaties between Russia and China, were declared cartographically on maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published as soon as possible.
Russian hydrographs in the XIX century. continued active work on the European seas. After the annexation of Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian navy on the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, the navigation atlas of I.N. Billings on the northern coast, in 1807 - the atlas of I. M. Budischev on the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - the “General Map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In 1825-1836. under the leadership of E.P. Manganari, on the basis of triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western seas was carried out, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Black Sea” in 1841.
In the 19th century intensive study of the Caspian Sea continued. In 1826, based on the detailed hydrographic works of 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Colleges under the leadership of A.E. Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully met the requirements of the shipping of that time.
In subsequent years, the maps of the atlas were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the western coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836) and others. on the eastern coast of the Caspian. In 1847, I. I. Zherebtsov described the bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsov, who over the course of 15 years carried out a systematic survey and description, compiling several plans and 26 maps that covered almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.
In the 19th century Intensive work continued to improve the maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the “Atlas of the entire Baltic Sea…” compiled by G. A. Sarychev (1812). In 1834-1854. based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of F. F. Schubert, maps were compiled and published for the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea.
Significant changes were made to the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula by the hydrographic works of F. P. Litke (1821-1824) and M. F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the Reinecke expedition, in 1833 the “Atlas of the White Sea ...” was published, the maps of which were used by seafarers until the beginning of the 20th century, and the “Hydrographic description of the northern coast of Russia”, which supplemented this atlas, can be considered as an example of a geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to MF Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.
Thematic mapping
Active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the formation of special (thematic) mapping. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th-early 20th centuries.
In 1832, the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire was published by the Main Directorate of Communications. It included general maps on a scale of 20 and 10 versts per inch, detailed maps on a scale of 2 versts per inch, and plans on a scale of 100 fathoms per inch and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were compiled, which contributed to an increase in the cartographic knowledge of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.
Significant cartographic work in the XIX-early XX centuries. carried out by the Ministry of State Property formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of civilian topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.
An important achievement of domestic cartography was the Marx's Great World Desktop Atlas, published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), containing over 200 maps and an index of 130,000 geographical names.
Mapping nature
Geological mapping
In the 19th century intensive cartographic study of the mineral resources of Russia and their exploitation continued, special geognostic (geological) mapping is being developed. At the beginning of the XIX century. many maps of mountain districts were created, plans for factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, and mineral springs. The history of exploration and development of minerals in the Altai and Nerchinsk mining districts is reflected in particular detail in the maps.
Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Salt Mine Maps” compiled by the Mining Department. The maps of the collection belong mainly to the 20-30s. 19th century Many of the maps in this atlas are much broader in content than ordinary salt mine maps and are, in fact, early examples of geological (petrographic) maps. So, among the maps of G. Vansovich of 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The “Map of the Pskov and part of the Novgorod province” also has a rich geological content: showing rock and salt springs discovered in 1824…”
An extremely rare example of an early map is the “Topographic Map of the Crimean Peninsula…” with the designation of the depth and quality of water in the villages, compiled by A.N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on the cartographic basis of 1817. having different water supply, as well as a table of the number of villages by counties in need of watering.
In 1840-1843. The English geologist R. I. Murchison, together with A. A. Keyserling and N. I. Koksharov, conducted research that for the first time gave a scientific picture of the geological structure of European Russia.
In the 50s. 19th century The first geological maps began to be published in Russia. One of the earliest is the Geognostic Map of the St. Petersburg Province (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research found expression in the Geological Map of European Russia (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).
The main task of the Geological Committee was the creation of a 10-verst (1:420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map were published out of the planned 170. Since the 1870s. geological mapping of some regions of Asiatic Russia began.
In 1895, the Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism was published, compiled by A. A. Tillo.
Forest mapping
One of the earliest handwritten maps of forests is the “Map for Reviewing the State of Forests and the Timber Industry in [European] Russia”, compiled in 1840-1841, as established by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state-owned forests, the forest industry and forest-consuming industries, as well as on improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for it were collected by inquiries through local departments of state property, as well as other departments. In the final form in 1842, two maps were drawn up; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the earliest samples of soil-climatic maps, which marked climatic bands and dominant soils in European Russia. A soil-climatic map has not yet been discovered.
The work on mapping the forests of European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of the device and mapping and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols were created for the preparation of forest plans and maps, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state lands in Siberia, which became especially widespread after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.
soil mapping
In 1838 a systematic study of soils began in Russia. Mostly on the basis of interrogation information, many handwritten soil maps were compiled. Prominent economic geographer and climatologist Academician K. S. Veselovsky in 1855 compiled and published the first consolidated “Soil Map of European Russia”, which shows eight types of soils: black soil, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, solonetzes, tundra , swamps. The works of K. S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V. V. Dokuchaev, who proposed a truly scientific classification for soils based on the genetic principle, and introduced their comprehensive study taking into account factors soil formation. His book Cartography of Russian Soils, published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text for the Soil Map of European Russia, laid the foundations for modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882, V. V. Dokuchaev and his followers (N. M. Sibirtsev, K. D. Glinka, S. S. Neustruev, L. I. Prasolov and others) carried out soil, and in fact complex physical and geographical studies in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works was soil maps of provinces (on a scale of 10 versts) and more detailed maps of individual districts. Under the direction of V.V. Dokuchaev, N.M. Sibirtsev, G.I. Tanfilyev and A.R. Ferkhmin compiled and published in 1901 the “Soil Map of European Russia” at a scale of 1:2,520,000.
Socio-economic mapping
Economy Mapping
The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a deeper study of the national economy. To this end, in the middle of the XIX century. survey economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was the “Map of the Industry of European Russia Showing Factories, Factories and Industries, Administrative Places in the Manufactory Section, Major Fairs, Water and Land Communications, Ports, Lighthouses, Customs Houses, Major Quays, Quarantines, etc., 1842” .
A significant cartographic work is the “Economic and Statistical Atlas of European Russia from 16 Maps”, compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. It was the first economic atlas in our country devoted to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climatic, agricultural). In the atlas and its text part, an attempt was made to summarize the main features and directions of development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. 19th century
Of undoubted interest is the handwritten "Statistical Atlas", compiled in the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the direction of N. A. Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms, reflecting a wide variety of socio-economic parameters. It, apparently, was compiled in parallel with the "Economic and Statistical Atlas" of 1851 and, in comparison with it, provides a lot of new information.
A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the Maps of the Most Important Branches of Productivity in European Russia compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1:2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement in the organization of statistical affairs in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society P. P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky. The materials collected during the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that multifacetedly and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map was an excellent reference tool and valuable material for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of content, expressiveness and originality of mapping methods, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance up to the present.
The first capital atlas of industry was the “Statistical Atlas of the Main Branches of the Factory Industry of European Russia” by D. A. Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (the Urals, the Nerchinsk District, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic charts of cargo flows along railways and waterways were published.
One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early 20th century. is the “Commercial and industrial map of European Russia” by V.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shan scale 1:1,680,000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and regions.
We should dwell on one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas-album "Agricultural trade in Russia" (1914), representing a set of statistical maps of agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of “cartographic propaganda” of the potential possibilities of the agricultural economy in Russia to attract new investments from abroad.
Population mapping
P. I. Keppen organized a systematic collection of statistical data on the number and ethnographic characteristics of the Russian population. The result of the work of P. I. Keppen was the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1:3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General A.F. Rittich. At the Paris International Geographical Exhibition, the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasus region were published at a scale of 1:1,080,000 (A.F. Rittikh, 1875), Asiatic Russia (M.I. Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), and others.
Among other thematic cartographic works, one should mention the first map of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), “The General Map of the Entire Russian Empire with the Significance of the Degree of Population” by A. Rakint at a scale of 1:21,000,000 (1866), which also included Alaska.
Integrated research and mapping
In 1850-1853. The police department issued atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).
In 1897, a student of V. V. Dokuchaev, G. I. Tanfilyev, published the zoning of European Russia, which for the first time was called physiographic. Zonality was clearly reflected in Tanfiliev's scheme, and some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions were also outlined.
In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland was published, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1910, the second edition of this atlas appeared.
The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the capital "Atlas of Asian Russia", published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, with an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions for the agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this edition for the first time included a detailed review of the history of mapping in Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later a well-known historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The content of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflects the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas contains an extensive set of economic maps for Asian Russia. Its central section is made up of maps, on which backgrounds of different colors show the general picture of land ownership and land use, which displays the results of the ten-year activity of the Resettlement Administration for the arrangement of settlers.
A special map has been placed showing the distribution of the population of Asiatic Russia by religion. Three maps are devoted to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. The cartograms for agriculture show the share of different crops in field cultivation and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are devoted to communication routes, post offices and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for sparsely populated Asiatic Russia.
So, by the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided for the needs of the country's defense, national economy, science and education, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. By the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire had vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state, published by A. A. Ilyin's cartographic institution in 1915.