§ 10. Arab conquests and the creation of the Arab Caliphate
The rise of Islam
The youngest of the world's religions, Islam, originated in the Arabian Peninsula. Most of its inhabitants, Arabs, were engaged in cattle breeding and led a nomadic lifestyle. Despite this, cities also existed here, the largest of which arose on the way of trade caravans. The richest Arab cities were Mecca and Yathrib.
The Arabs were well acquainted with the sacred books of Jews and Christians - many adherents of these religions lived in Arabian cities. However, most of the Arabs remained pagans. The main sanctuary of all Arab tribes was the Kaaba located in Mecca.
In the VII century. the paganism of the Arabs was replaced by a monotheistic religion, the founder of which was the prophet Muhammad (570-632), who, according to legend, received revelations from the Most High - Allah and appeared before his fellow tribesmen with the preaching of a new faith. Later, after the death of the prophet, close friends and associates of Muhammad restored and wrote down his words from memory. This is how the holy book of Muslims, the Koran (from Arabic - reading), arose - the main source of Islamic doctrine. Orthodox Muslims consider the Quran to be "the uncreated, eternal word of God," which Allah dictated to Muhammad, who acted as a mediator between God and people.
Muhammad and Archangel Jebrail. Medieval miniature
In his sermons, Muhammad spoke of himself only as the last prophet ("the seal of the prophets") who was sent by God to make people understand. He called his predecessors Musa (Moses), Yusuf (Joseph) and Dog (Jesus). People who believed the prophet began to be called Muslims (from the Arab. - giving themselves to God), and the religion founded by Muhammad - Islam (from the Arab. - obedience). Muhammad and his supporters expected support from the Jewish and Christian communities, but both the former and the latter saw in Islam only another heretical movement and remained deaf to the calls of the prophet.
The creed of Islam rests on the "five pillars". All Muslims must believe in one God - Allah and in the prophetic mission of Muhammad; they are obliged to pray five times a day and a weekly prayer in the mosque on Fridays; every Muslim should observe fasting in the holy month of Ramadan and at least once in his life make a pilgrimage to Mecca - Hajj. These duties are complemented by another duty - if necessary, to participate in the holy war for the faith - jihad.
Muslims believe that everything in the world is subordinate and obedient to Allah, and nothing can be done without His will. In relation to people, He is merciful, merciful and forgiving. People, realizing the power and greatness of Allah, must completely obey Him, be submissive, trust in everything and rely on His will and mercy. A large place in the Qur'an is occupied by stories about Allah's retribution to people for good deeds and punishment for sinful deeds. Allah also acts as the supreme judge of mankind: according to His decision, after death, every person will go to hell or heaven, depending on earthly deeds.
The establishment of Islam in Arabia and the beginning of the Arab conquests
Persecution by the pagans forced Muhammad and his followers to flee from Mecca to Yathrib in 622. This event was called Hijra (from Arabic - migration) and became the beginning of the Muslim chronology. In Yasrib, renamed Medina (City of the Prophet), a community of Muslim believers was formed. Many of its inhabitants converted to Islam and began to help Muhammad. In 630, the prophet defeated his opponents and solemnly entered Mecca. Soon all Arab tribes - some voluntarily, some under the influence of force - began to practice the new religion. As a result, a single Muslim state arose in Arabia.
Islamic State was theocratic- Prophet Muhammad united both secular and spiritual power in his person. After his death, there was still no separation between the authorities - the state and the religious organization of believers constituted one whole. Sharia, a complex of religious, moral, legal and everyday rules and regulations, predetermined by Allah himself and therefore unchanging, began to play an important role in the life of Muslims. It is by them that a devout Muslim should be guided in his life, they are common to all and can only be interpreted by experts in the Islamic faith.
Muslims storm a fortress in Syria. Medieval miniature
During the life of Muhammad, the Arabs began campaigns of conquest. They fell upon the possessions of the Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Iran. These countries were unable to withstand the blows of the followers of Islam, inspired by the new religion. The Arabs defeated and subjugated all of Iran, seized Syria, Palestine and Egypt belonging to Byzantium. Jerusalem, sacred to Jews and Christians, voluntarily surrendered. All the eastern possessions of Byzantium, with the exception of Asia Minor, were under the rule of the Arabs.
After the death of Muhammad (632), the Muslims were headed by elective caliphs (from the Arab. - deputy). The first caliph was Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law. Then Omar (Umar) ruled. After the death of Omar as a result of the assassination attempt (644), the Muslim nobility chose Osman (Uthman), the son-in-law of the prophet, as caliph.
In 656, Osman died at the hands of conspirators, as a result of which an acute political crisis broke out that engulfed the Islamic state - the Arab Caliphate. Ali, the prophet's cousin and husband of his daughter Fatima, became the new caliph. But influential forces in the caliphate did not recognize his authority. The governor of Syria, Muawiya, a relative of Osman, accused Ali of facilitating his assassination. A turmoil began in the Arab state, during which Ali was killed (661). His martyrdom led to a split in the Muslim community. Ali's followers believed that only his descendant could become the new caliph, and all the claims of other contenders for power were illegal. The followers of Ali began to be called Shiites (from the Arab. - a group of adherents). The Shiites endowed Ali with almost divine features. The Shiites retain their greatest influence to this day in Iran.
The Muslims who followed the new Caliph Mu'awiyah (661-680) were called Sunnis. Along with the Koran, the Sunnis recognize the Sunnah - the Sacred Tradition about the actions and sayings of Muhammad. Sunnis make up the majority of Muslims today.
Arab Caliphate in the second half of the 7th-10th centuries
The founder of the Umayyad dynasty (661–750), Muawiya, succeeded in making the power of the caliphs hereditary. The capital caliphate became the Syrian city of Damascus. After the end of the Troubles, the Arab conquests continued. Hikes were made to India, Central Asia and the west of North Africa. The Arabs besieged Constantinople more than once, but could not take it. In the West at the beginning of the VIII century. the Muslim army crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to the Iberian Peninsula and, defeating the army of the Visigothic kingdom, captured most of Spain. Then the Arabs invaded the Frankish state, but were stopped by Major Karl Martell at the Battle of Poitiers (732). Muslims fortified in the Iberian Peninsula, creating there in 929 the mighty Caliphate of Cordoba, and continued to push Christians in North Africa. The vast world of Islam (Islamic civilization) arose.
The Arab Caliphate reached the pinnacle of power in the 8th century. The Arabs declared all the conquered lands to be the property of the Muslim community, and the local population living on these lands had to pay a land tax. At first, the Arabs did not force Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians (adherents of the ancient religion of Iran) to convert to Islam; they were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, paying a special poll tax. But Muslims were extremely intolerant of pagans. People who converted to Islam were exempted from taxes. Unlike the rest of the Caliph's subjects, Muslims donated only alms to the poor.
In the middle of the VIII century. As a result of the uprising that led to the overthrow of the Umayyads, the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258) came to power in the caliphate, which attracted not only Arabs, but also Muslims of other nationalities to governing the state. During this period, a ramified bureaucratic apparatus emerged, and the Islamic state increasingly began to resemble an Eastern power with unlimited ruler power. The new capital of the Abbasid Caliphate - Baghdad - has become one of the largest cities in the world with a population of half a million.
In the IX century. the power of the Baghdad caliphs began to gradually weaken. Revolts of the nobility and popular uprisings undermined the strength of the state, and its territory was inexorably decreasing. In the X century. the caliph lost secular power, remaining only the spiritual head of the Sunni Muslims. The Arab Caliphate disintegrated into independent Islamic states - often these were extremely fragile and short-lived formations, the boundaries of which depended on the luck and strength of the sultans and emirs who headed them.
Culture of Muslim countries of the Near and Middle East
Muslim culture, which united different peoples, had deep roots. The Muslim Arabs borrowed a lot from the heritage of Mesopotamia, Iran, Egypt, Asia Minor. They turned out to be talented students, having mastered many of the knowledge accumulated by the peoples of these countries over the centuries, and passed them on to other peoples, including Europeans.
Muslims valued scientific knowledge and sought to apply it in practice. At the court of the caliphs in Baghdad and in other large cities, “Houses of Wisdom” arose - a kind of academies of sciences, where scholars were engaged in translating the works of authors from different countries and living in different eras into Arabic. Many works belonged to ancient authors: Aristotle, Plato, Archimedes, etc.
Scientists of the Muslim East devoted considerable time to the study of mathematics and astronomy. Trade and travel made the Arabs geographers. From India, through the Arabs, the decimal system came to European science. Scientists of the Muslim world have achieved significant achievements in medicine. The most famous are the works of the man who lived in the late 10th - early 11th centuries. doctor Ibn Sina (in Europe he was called Avicenna), summarizing the experience of Greek, Roman, Indian and Central Asian doctors.
Outstanding poetic works were written in Arabic and Persian. Without the names of Rudaki (860-941), Ferdowsi (940-1020/1030), Nizami (1141-1209), Khayyam (1048-1122) and other Muslim poets, it is impossible to imagine world literature.
In the Muslim East, the art of calligraphy (from Greek - beautiful handwriting) has become widespread - intricate patterns and ornaments made up of Arabic letters that form words can be seen in books and on the walls of buildings (mainly quotes from the Koran or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad ).
Al-Aqsa Mosque. Jerusalem. Modern look
As a result of the emergence of Islam and the conquests of the Muslim Arabs in the East, a new, dynamically developing Islamic civilization has emerged, which has become a serious rival to the Western European Christian civilization.
Questions and tasks
1. List the main provisions of the Muslim doctrine.
2. What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs?
3. How did the Muslim conquerors develop relations with people belonging to other religions?
4. Why, despite the turmoil and schisms, the Islamic state has been able to maintain unity for a long time?
5. What are the reasons for the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate?
6. Using the map, list the states of antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the territories of which became part of the Arab Caliphate.
7. It is said that Islam is the only world religion that emerged "in the full light of history." How do you understand these words?
8. The author of the work “Qaboos-Name” (XI century) discusses wisdom and knowledge: “Do not consider an ignoramus as a person, but a wise man, but devoid of virtue, do not consider a wise man, cautious, but devoid of knowledge, do not recognize an ascetic do not associate, especially with those ignorant people who consider themselves sages and are satisfied with their ignorance. Communicate only with reasonable ones, for from communication with good people they acquire good fame. Do not be ungrateful for communicating with the kind and (them. - Auth.) good deeds and do not forget (this. - Auth.); do not push away the one who needs you, for through this pushing away suffering and need (yours. - Auth.) increase. Try to be good-natured and humane, move away from uncommendable morals and do not be wasteful, for the fruit of extravagance is concern, and the fruit of concern is need, and the fruit of need is humiliation. Try to be praised by the reasonable, and be careful not to be praised by the ignorant, for he who is praised by the rabble is condemned by the nobles, as I heard ... They say that once Iflatun (as the Muslims called the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. - Auth.) sat with the nobles of that city. A man came to bow to him, sat down and made various speeches. In the midst of speeches, he said: “O sage, today I saw such and such, and he spoke about you and glorified and praised you: Iflatun, they say, is a very great sage, and there has never been and never will be like him. I wanted to convey his praises to you. "
The sage Iflatoun, hearing these words, bowed his head and sobbed, and was very saddened. The man asked: "O sage, what offense have I caused you that you are so sad?" The sage Iflatun replied: “You have not offended me, O Hodja, but can there be a calamity greater than the fact that an ignoramus praises me and my deeds seem to him worthy of approval? I don’t know what kind of stupidity I did, which pleased him and pleased him, so he praised me, otherwise I would have repent of this act. My sorrow is because I am still an ignoramus, for those whom the ignorant praise are ignorant themselves. "
What should be the social circle of a person, according to the author?
Why should such communication be beneficial?
Why was Plato upset?
What does the mention of his name in the story testify to?
This text is an introductory fragment.A summary of the history of the Arab Caliphate.
Arabs have inhabited the vast Arabian Peninsula since time immemorial. Its territory is located in a desert and semi-arid arid zone with a sultry climate. During the period of the history of the Ancient World, it was not conquered by the Middle Eastern empires, who did not see special value in these barren lands. Arab tribes led a nomadic lifestyle, moving in search of pastures for livestock. In the west of the peninsula, off the eastern coast of the Red Sea, there was a strategic route for trade caravans. On its route, shopping centers were formed in the oases, the most important of which by the middle of the 1st millennium AD. NS. became Mr. Mecca.
The rise of Islam and the founding of the Caliphate
In the VII century. Muhammad was born in Mecca. He was a caravan trader by profession. Until the end of his days, he was illiterate, but during his trade expeditions he became acquainted with the customs and beliefs of many peoples. He began to preach a new religion - Islam... From his words, the holy book of Muslims was written Koran... During the life of Muhammad belief in Islam united all Arabs... After his death in 632 BC the closest associates and assistants of the Prophet Muhammad, who left no sons, began to rule over the Arabs. The head of the newly formed Arab state received the title of caliph. This word means governor, deputy. It was believed that the caliph replaces the deceased prophet on earth and combines secular and spiritual power in his hands. The first four rulers of the Caliphate Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and Ali Islamic tradition names "Righteous caliphs." WITH 661 The Caliph Mu'awiy came to power, who founded the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled until 750 G.Arab conquests
Under Muhammad's successors, the Arabs began conquests outside the Arabian Peninsula, intervening in a long-standing struggle between Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Persia which significantly weakened both of these powers. The Arabs successfully spread Islam among other peoples. Byzantium was shaken by religious strife between the followers of various currents in Christianity, who accused each other of heresy. This religious feud was for life and death. Islam, however, demanded the complete extermination of only those who professed pagan beliefs. With regard to Christians and Jews in the Caliphate, only a few restrictions were introduced, and increased taxation was introduced for the adherents of these religions, whom Muslims called "People of the Book". In such conditions, many Christians found it safer to live according to the laws of the caliphate than under the rule of the Byzantine emperor, if he was an adherent of a different trend in Christianity. The Arab cavalry demonstrated its effectiveness and mobility in battles. These factors predetermined the significant success of the Arab conquests. IN 637 d. after a long siege, the Arabs captured Jerusalem. This city, the most important for Jews and Christians, is considered sacred by Muslims, along with Mecca and Medina. Over the course of several years, the power of the Caliphate spread to Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia and Persia, from where the Arabs soon infiltrated North India and Central Asia. Further penetration of Muslims to the East was stopped by Chinese troops. IN 751 g... they managed to defeat the Arabs in a general battle.The troops of the Caliphate achieved no less success in the western direction, capturing Egypt and the countries of the Maghreb. The Muslim commander Tariq ibn Zarid landed in Gibraltar with an army of Arabs and Berbers, and defeated the Visigoth army, capturing 714 the entire Iberian Peninsula, except for certain mountainous regions in its northern part, inhabited by the Basque people. The Arabs, nicknamed "Saracens" (locusts) in medieval European chronicles, continued their advance beyond the Pyrenees, capturing many cities in southern France. But in 732 G. the army of the Franks led by Karl Martell managed to defeat them at Poitiers and stop the further advance of the Arabs on the European continent. Clashes continued between Christians and Muslims in the Mediterranean. For a time, the Arabs held control of southern Italy and Sicily and tried unsuccessfully to besiege Constantinople.
In the Iberian Peninsula, Christian monarchs fought wars for the expulsion of the Arabs for over 700 years. They got the name Reconquista (reconquest). In the course of these wars, the modern state of Spain was formed.
By the middle of the VIII century. the power of the caliphate extended over a gigantic territory from the Atlantic to the river. Ind. And from the Balkan Peninsula to the Nile Rapids. Later, Islam penetrated the countries of Indochina and tropical Africa.
Caliphate ruled by the Abassid dynasty
Under the Umayyads, the residence of the caliphs was located in Syrian Damascus. IN 750 They were overthrown by the Abassid dynasty, who moved the capital to Baghdad. One of the most illustrious rulers of this dynasty was Haroun al Rashid (786-809)... There are many legends and stories about him. He allegedly loved to roam the streets of the city incognito. During his reign, there was a grandiose construction of palaces, mosques and caravanserais (inns), which turned Baghdad into an architectural pearl of the Middle East, which amazed foreign merchants with its splendor.This period of early Middle Ages in Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire was accompanied by a marked decline in culture, education and science. Against this background, in the Arab Caliphate, there was a noticeable flourishing in these areas. Arab scientists have achieved particularly striking achievements in the fields of mathematics, astronomy and medicine.
Collapse of the Arab Caliphate
On the edge VIII-IX centuries... the unity of the Caliphate is rapidly weakening. A wave of riots and popular uprisings swept across different regions. Real power in many areas began to pass into the hands of local rulers who founded their own dynasties. Most often, they bore the titles of emirs, without claiming supremacy over all Muslims. One of the first to separate was the Iberian Peninsula, whose rulers bore the title of Caliph. Since 756, the Spanish branch of the Umayyads ruled there, considering the Abassids illegitimate usurpers. Dynasties of independent rulers were formed in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Iran, Central Asia, on the Persian Gulf coast.By the X century. the caliphate actually ceased to exist as a single state, divided into many completely independent possessions, often at war with each other. IN 945 The city of Baghdad was conquered by rulers from the Iranian clan Buyids. They left the Baghdad caliphs exclusively religious power, minimizing their political influence. IN 1258 In the course of the Mongol conquests, Baghdad was ruled by the Mongols. This event is considered to be the date of the final collapse of the Baghdad Caliphate... However, the descendants of the last caliph fled to Egypt, and there, they continued to pass this nominal title by inheritance until 1517 when Cairo was conquered by the Sultan of the Ottoman Turks Selim I. He proclaimed himself the caliph of the faithful, and later this title remained with the rulers of the Ottoman Empire until the end of its existence.
The modern countries of the Arab world are the historical successors of the Arab Caliphate. They are still united by a common language, rich culture and religion with a large number of zealous adherents.
The homeland of the Arabs is Arabia (or rather, the Arabian Peninsula), so called by the Turks and Farces (Persians). Arabia is located at the junction of Asia, Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. The southern part of the peninsula is more suitable for living - there is a lot of water, it rains. The nomadic Arabs are called "Bedouins" (people of the desert). At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th centuries, the Arabs were at the stage of transition from a primitive system to feudalism. The largest shopping center was Mecca.The nature of the Arab Caliphate and Islamic societies,
which are controlled by the clergy. 
The Arabs were originally idolaters. Since 610, the Prophet Muhammad began to preach a new, Islamic religion. In 622 the Prophet moved (hijrat) from Mecca to Medina. Returning to Mecca in 630, Muhammad founded the Arab state. Most of the Arabs converted to Islam. The fundamental book of Islam - the Koran consists of 114 suras. A devout Muslim must observe five main conditions: 1) know the formula for the evidence of the unity of Allah; 2) pray; 3) observe fasting; 4) give alms; 5) if possible, visit the holy places (hajj) - Mecca. After the Prophet Muhammad, the country was ruled by the caliphs (successor, deputy). The history of the Arab state is divided into three periods:
- 630-661 years. The period of the reign of the Prophet Muhammad and after him four caliphs - Abu Bekr, Omar, Osman, Ali. The capital of the Caliphate was Mecca and Medina.
- 661-750 years. The period of the Umayyad dynasty from Mu'awiyah. The capital of the Caliphate was the city of Damascus.
- 750-1258 years. Period of Abbasid rule. Since 762, the capital has been the city of Baghdad. Under the Abbasids, 120 km from Baghdad, in the city of Samira, the residence of the Caliph was built. How has the Arab Caliphate developed throughout history?
The Arabs hit Byzantium and Iran like an avalanche. The reasons for their successful offensive were: 1) a large army, especially a large light cavalry; 2) Iran and Byzantium were exhausted by a long war with each other; 3) the locals, exhausted by this war, looked at the Arabs as deliverers. 
At the beginning of the 8th century, the Arabs conquered North Africa and in 711, led by Tarig, crossed Gibraltar (the Arabic name "Jaballutarig" - in honor of Tarig) and conquered the Iberian Peninsula. In 732, the Arabs lost at the Battle of Poitiers and retreated south. Muslim troops conquered the Caucasus and Central Asia, in the east they reached China and the Indus river valley. At the end of the 7th - first half of the 8th centuries, the borders of the Caliphate stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to India and China. At the head of the country was the caliph, who during the war was the supreme commander in chief.
To manage various sectors of the economy, sofas were created: the military affairs sofa was engaged in providing for the army, the internal affairs sofa controlled the collection of taxes. The couch of the postal service played an important role in the caliphate. Even carrier pigeons were used. All state affairs in the Caliphate were conducted in Arabic. Within the caliphate, the gold dinar and the silver dirhem were in circulation. All the conquered lands were the property of the state. To gain a foothold in the conquered territories, the Arabs widely practiced resettlement policy. In this case, two goals were pursued:
- by creating an ethnic support, to strengthen;
- resettling those who were state support, to free the treasury from unnecessary payments.
The peoples, forcibly included in the caliphate, rebelled. In Central Asia, under the leadership of Muganna in 783-785. an uprising arose. The teachings of Muganna were based on the teachings of Mazdak.
During the reign of Caliph Mohtasim (833-842), the military positions of the Turks were strengthened, a special army was created, consisting only of the Turks. In the struggle against Byzantium and in the suppression of uprisings, Mohtasim attracted the Turks.
In state institutions, the Turks were given high positions, since they were more knowledgeable in administrative matters.
The Tulun dynasty that ruled Egypt was of Turkic origin. During the reign of the Egyptian governor, Ahmed ibn Tulun, a strong flotilla was built, which reigned in the Mediterranean. Tulun supervised construction work and took care of the welfare of the people. Egyptian historians call the period of his reign (868-884) "golden time".
In the middle of the VIII century, Spain separated from the Caliphate and an independent state arose here - the Emirate of Cordoba. In the 9th century, Egypt, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan also split from the Caliphate.In the XI century, all the territories of the Caliphate were taken over.
After the death of Muhammad, the Arabs were ruled by the caliphs. - the heirs of the Prophet. Under the first four caliphs, his closest associates and relatives, the Arabs went beyond the Arabian Peninsula and attacked Byzantium and Iran. The main force of their army was the cavalry. The Arabs conquered the richest Byzantine provinces - Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the huge Iranian kingdom. At the beginning of the VIII century. in North Africa, they subdued the Berber tribes and converted them to Islam. In 711 the Arabs crossed over to Europe, to the Iberian Peninsula, and conquered almost completely the Visigoth kingdom; But later, in a clash with the Franks (732), the Arabs were driven back to South In the east, they subdued the peoples of Transcaucasia and Central Asia, breaking their stubborn resistance.After conquering Eastern Iran and Afghanistan, the Arabs penetrated into Northwestern India.
So during the VII - first half of the VIII century. a huge state arose - the Arab Caliphate, stretching from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of India and China. Damascus became its capital.
In the middle of the VII century. Under Caliph Ali, a cousin of Muhammad, civil strife broke out in the country, leading to a split of Muslims into Sunnis and Shiites.
The Sunnis recognize not only the Koran as holy books, but also the Sunnah - a collection of stories from the life of Muhammad, and also believe that the Caliph should be the head of the Muslim Church. Shiites reject the Sunnah as a holy book and demand that the believers be led by imams - spiritual mentors from the clan of Ali.
After the assassination of Ali, power was seized by the caliphs from the Omeiyad dynasty, who relied on the Sunnis. The Shiite uprising against the Omeiyads began in Central Asia and spread to Iran and Iraq, which was used by the Abbasids - the descendants of Muhammad's uncle, Abbas. The Caliph's troops were defeated, the Caliph himself fled to Syria, and then to Egypt, where he was killed by the rebels. Almost all the Umayyads were exterminated (one of the escaped Omeiyads created an independent Arab state in Spain - the Kardovsky Emirate, from the 10th century - the Cordoba Caliphate). In 750, power in the caliphate passed to the Abbasid dynasty. Iranian landowners who supported the Abbasids received high positions in the state. They could even hold the post of a vizier - a high official, assistant to the caliph.
All land in the state was the property of the Caliph. Emirs (governors) from among his closest relatives collected taxes in the provinces, supported the army at the expense of this, and led the campaigns of conquest. Relief in the payment of taxes for Muslims forced many residents of the conquered countries to convert to Islam. As a result, during its time, Islam was adopted by the majority of the population of Syria, Egypt, a significant part of Africa, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, part of Hindustan and Indonesia.
Under the Abbasids, the Arab conquests almost ceased: only the islands of Sicily, Cyprus, Crete and part of the south of Italy were annexed. At the intersection of trade routes on the Tigris River, a new capital was founded - Baghdad, which gave the name to the Arab state under the Abbasids - the Baghdad Caliphate. during the reign of the legendary Harun ar-Rashid (766-809), a contemporary of Charlemagne.
In the VIII-IX centuries. a series of uprisings swept through the caliphate. Particularly significant was the movement of the Carmatians (one of the branches of the Shiites), which even managed to create their own state, which existed for about one and a half centuries.
The huge caliphate did not remain united for long. More and more power in it was acquired by the guards, recruited from the captured Turks (immigrants from Central Asia), and the governors-emirs, who became independent rulers. In the IX century. Egypt and other provinces in North Africa, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan seceded from the Baghdad Caliphate. Only Mesopotamia was under the rule of the caliph, but the caliph remained the head of the Sunni Muslims.
In the middle of the XI century. The Seljuk Turks (named after their leader Seljuk), who had captured, by that time, part of Central Asia, conquered most of the Arab possessions in the Middle East. In 1055 they captured Baghdad. The Caliph crowned the ruler of the Seljuk Turks and granted him the title of Sultan.
Since ancient times, the Arabian Peninsula has been inhabited by nomadic tribes of pastoralists. The founder of Islam, Muhammad, managed to unite them together. The state he created in just a hundred years managed to turn into one of the strongest powers in the world.
How did the Arab Caliphate begin?
Around the 630s, the Arabs began making regular forays outside their native Arabian Peninsula. The reason is simple - the young state needed resources and new territories.
Subjugating other lands, the Arab nobility got access to the cornucopia: slaves, captives, who could be returned for a rich ransom, and most importantly, the tribute collected from all captured peoples.
At the very beginning, the Arabs were quite loyal to the population and structure of the countries they had captured. They did not go into local traditions, did not arrange mass migration of peoples and were distinguished by religious tolerance. Moreover, they even adopted certain elements of the cult from the conquered outsiders.
But later the situation began to change. In all the conquered states, the process of Arabization of the local population was launched. This took place most quickly and relatively painlessly where numerous Arab communities had lived even before the formation of the Caliphate. For example, in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Roughly the same thing was observed with the spread of Islam.
Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism in the subordinate territories began to gradually fade away, although the Arabs did not persecute representatives of other religions.
True, the Gentiles were severely limited in their rights.
Many historians still call such a rapid transformation of the Caliphate into a major power a phenomenon. The fact is that on their way to greatness, the Arabs faced the two most powerful states of that time - Byzantium and Sassanid Persia. But the natives of the Arabian Peninsula were lucky. Both of these empires were in decline due to years of confrontation with each other and internal crisis. The Arabs took advantage of the weakness of their formidable rivals, which resulted in three waves of conquest campaigns.
First wave
From the very beginning, the Arabs were lucky. They managed to conquer the Levant from Byzantium, and from Persia - the rich and fertile Mesopotamia. And in 633, the Caliphate invaded the Sassanid Empire itself. The confrontation lasted nineteen years and ended in complete victory for the Arabs.
The Sassanid dynasty ceased to exist, the territory of Persia ceded to the Caliphate, and Islam replaced Zoroastrianism.
While the war with the Persians was going on, the Arab commander Amr ibn al-As in just a year (641-642) managed to annex Egypt to the territory of the Caliphate. Five years later, the Arabs organized the first invasion of North Africa with two armies, totaling about forty thousand people. Sheikh Abdullah ibn Saad stood at the head of this army.
The results of this invasion were not so impressive. Only Carthage fell under the influence of the Caliphate. After spending more than a year in exhausting campaigns in the deserts, the sheikh returned with an army to Egypt.
In 656, a civil war broke out within the state, provoked by the assassination of Khalif Uthman. The throne was occupied by Ali ibn Abu Talib, but he died a few years later.
Despite the confusion, the Arabs managed to subjugate the countries of the Caucasus and Derbent. However, not for long. By 661, almost all of this territory had become independent from the Caliphate - the help of Byzantium affected.
Second wave
As soon as the situation in the caliphate calmed down, the Arabs again poured into North Africa, which was under the control of Byzantium.
The fifty thousandth army under the command of Ukba ibn Nafi managed to take the city of Kairouan and turn it in the shortest possible time into the main outpost for further military advance. The same fortress became the capital of the new region of Ifrikiya, located on the territory of modern Tunisia.
The war with the nomads, who were actively supported by Byzantium, was unsuccessful for the Arabs. First, Ibn Nafi himself died in one of the battles, and then Zuhair, the commander sent to replace him.
Another civil war and an uprising in Syria also prevented the suppression of the uprising. The second North African campaign had to be urgently curtailed.
Third wave
A new military campaign began in the late 780s. First of all, the Arabs zealously set about returning the lost territories of the Transcaucasus. In a short time, they were able to conquer three Eastern Georgian principalities, but fully entrenched themselves in only one of them - Kartli.
Then the caliphate sent troops to the west of Georgia, where the principality of Egrisi was located, which was dependent on Byzantium. The local ruler decided that it was pointless to fight the Arabs and therefore simply surrendered the city and helped the invaders expel the Greeks.
Thus, by the year 700, almost all of Transcaucasia was under the rule of the caliphate, with the exception of a few mountainous regions that were subordinate to Byzantium.
When the Transcaucasian states were finished, the Arabs sent their armies to the Maghreb countries (as they called the North African coast). There they were already, of course, “not welcome”. Therefore, the waxes of the caliphate had to recapture the cities of their former province of Ifrikiya. But Byzantium was waiting for such a turn of events and a large army arrived from Constantinople, supported by troops from Sicily, as well as Visigoths from Roman Spain.
At first, the Arabs decided not to get involved in an open battle, but retreated to Kairouan. But soon the opponents still had to face. The decisive battle took place near Carthage, where the Arabs defeated the Allied forces and entered the city without hindrance.
Another battle took place near Utica. But here, too, the caliphate was stronger. Two crushing defeats forced the Byzantine Empire to abandon claims to the North African coast. And the Arabs continued their conquests.
In less than ten years, they managed to subjugate all the countries of the Maghreb. The only exception was the city of Ceuta, located on the coast of modern Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. Thanks to the annexation of such a vast territory, the Arab Caliphate increased its "appetites" and began to look towards the delicious Iberian Peninsula.
In 711, the commander Tariq ibn Ziyad landed with his army in Spain. The war with the Visigoths lasted for about three years, and ended with the destruction of their state.
While the war in the Pyrenees was going on, the Arabs in 712 managed to significantly expand their eastern borders, conquering an area along the lower Indus called Sindh.