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* Uchpedgiz 1953 Axtreaming Aquarius on the history of the ancient world Paul editorial Academician V.V. Struve / volume \ III, 1 that state educational publishing house "of the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR R I was approved by the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR MS K. to and 1953 from compilers of the third volume history of the ancient world - Ancient Rome» - contains mainly documents on the socio-economic and political history of Rome. The third volume includes a significant number of literary and epigraphic sources published in Russian for the first time. In this edition, unlike the previous ones, there is a section on the history of the Northern Black Sea region. The methodological introductions that precede individual chapters of the reader are intended to facilitate the use of a number of documents. The reader is intended for seminars for students of historical faculties of universities and teachers of history in high school. //. A. Mashkin I and E. S. Golubtsova THE RISE OF THE ROMAN STATE THE ERA OF THE EARLY REPUBLIC Ancient Rome, one of the most powerful slave-owning states of the Mediterranean world, went through a long and difficult path of development throughout its existence. The question of what causes contributed to the rise of Rome has been of interest to historians since ancient times. The ancient authors Strabo and Polybius sought to explain the power of Rome in its advantageous geographical location (document No. 1, 2). The characteristics of the ancient, "pre-Roman" population of Italy and, first of all, the Etruscans are given by the material reported by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (doc. No. 3). In addition to literary sources, it is important to draw on archeological data that recreate vivid pictures of the life and life of the Etruscans, starting from their appearance in Italy (in the 8th century BC). K-Marx emphasizes the common features of the development of the Etruscans with other peoples of antiquity: “On a colossal scale, the effect of simple cooperation is found in those gigantic structures that were erected by the ancient Asian peoples, Egyptians, Etruscans, etc.” (K. Marx, Capital, vol. I, 1951, item; p. 340). Literary data on the emergence of Rome are legendary and contradictory. This is noted by the ancient authors themselves. So, for example, Dionysius of Halmkarnassus (Doc. No. 4) says that “there are many disagreements both about the time of the founding of the city of Rome and about the personality of its founder.” The most common was the version given by Livy (Doc. No. 5): the founder of Rome was a descendant of the Trojan Aeneas, who came to Italy. 5 The events of the early period of the history of Rome need to be studied in the light of the instructions of F. Engels in the work “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”. In the same plan, the question of the reform of Servius Tullius, as a result of which the transition from the tribal system to the state organization, was carried out (current No. 6). Throughout the entire era of the early republic, the struggle of the rich and the poor, full-fledged and disenfranchised, patricians and plebeians, runs like a red thread; sources tell us about this from the earliest times of the existence of the Roman state. The success of the plebeians in this struggle is evidenced, for example, by the establishment of the posts of people's tribunes to protect their (the plebeians') interests (Doc. No. 7). The bill of Spurius Cassius proposed, in order to improve the situation of the plebeians, to divide among them all the lands acquired by the Romans during the wars. The oldest epigraphic monument of Roman history are the laws of the XII tables (Doc. No. 8). The appearance of such legislation also testifies to some of the successes of the plebeians in the fight against the patricians. It should be borne in mind that our information about the laws of the XII tables is not accurate and is sometimes distorted when transmitted by later authors. The main part of the articles of the code is devoted to the protection of property. Debtors are severely punished. The father of the family enjoys the right of unlimited ruler, he can sell his children into slavery. According to the laws of the XII tables, property is protected by Roman law. Under these laws, a large fine and even the death penalty are required for theft. The rite of acquiring property was legalized - manipulation. A special chapter in the laws of the XII tables is devoted to the question of inheritance. A significant success of the plebeians in the fight against the patricians was that, according to the laws of Licinius and Sextius, one of the consuls had to be elected from the plebeians. The events of the internal history of early Rome must be described in close connection with its aggressive foreign policy: the struggle against the Etruscans, wars with the Latins, Samnites and other peoples. The Romans seize one after another the lands adjacent to their possessions, as a result of which, in the first period of the Republic, Rome from the insignificant city of Latium becomes the largest center of Italy. Outlining the history of the ancient republic, it should be borne in mind that our sources - Livy, Plutarch and others - always reliably convey events, present them tendentiously, exaggerating the strength of the Roman state. From this point of view, Livia's tendentious description of the events in the Kavdinsky Gorge (doc. No. 9), when the Romans suffered a decisive defeat in the fight against the Samnites, is very characteristic. After the defeat in the Kavdinsky Gorge, the Roman army was reorganized, and only with great difficulty did the Romans defeat the Samnites much later, in the third Samnite war. . A brief outline of the policy of Rome in this era is given by Polybius (Doc. No. 10). Having conquered the lands that belonged to the Samnites, the Romans turned out to be direct neighbors of the South Italian Greek cities and, first of all, Tarentum. South Italian cities were colonies, bred in the 7th-6th centuries. to i. e. the Greeks; they stubbornly defended their state independence. The most important of them, Tarentum - a colony bred by Sparta - entered into an alliance with the Epirus king Pyrrhus to fight against Rome. Having outlined the events of the Pyrrhic War, it is necessary to emphasize why the Romans managed to win, to dwell on Roman military tactics and Pyrrhus's expedition, which was, in essence, an adventure. The end of the war with Pyrrhus ended the first period of the conquest of Rome - the conquest of Italy. 6 No. 1. GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ITALY (Strabo, Geography, II, 5, 27; IV, 4, 1) Straboi, a native of Amasia of Poitpia, was born in the mid-60s ready to go. e., * died in 24 AD. e. He came from a wealthy family and received a good education - he studied the philosophy of Aristotle and the Stoics. He devoted much attention to acquaintance with history and geography. Strabo traveled a lot, undertook a number of expeditions: to the west - to Sardinia and south to the borders of Ethiopia. He well studied the geographical conditions and life of the peoples of Asia Minor, Greece and Italy. Since the establishment of the principate, Strabo moved to Rome, where he lived until the end of his life. In 24 BC. e. Strabo visited Epipetus, who traveled from the Nile Delta to its southern border. Strabo's essay "Geography" consists of 17 books. It contains a large amount of information not only on geography, but also on the history of Rome. Strabo is called the father of historical geography. His writings make critical use of the works of his predecessors, primarily Eratosthenes. The material of Strabo's "Geography" is subdivided according to the territorial principle. Books 3-10-Europe (3 - Iberia, 4 - Gaul, 5 and 6 - Italy, 7 - North and East, 8, 9, 10 - Hellas), 11-16 - Asia, 17 - Africa. Strabo pays much attention to the description of the customs and habits of peoples. For IAS, the information that Strabo reports about the Northern Black Sea region is especially valuable - about the natural conditions and population, in particular the tribes of Roxolans, Scythians, etc. Strabo's data on the history of the Northern Black Sea Region are also of great value, about which we often do not find a word in other ancient historians. Strabo is also the author of a historical work in six books, of which only excerpts have come down to us. Italy begins with the plains, which are located at the foot of the Alps and stretch to the Adriatic Sea and the surrounding areas. Behind these plains, Italy is a long, narrow peninsula ending in capes, the entire length of which stretches the Apennine mountains for seven thousand stadia. Their width is not the same everywhere. by which the Romans at the present time have risen to such heights. The first of these conditions is that Italy, like an island, is surrounded, as by a sure fence, by the seas, with the exception of only a few parts, which in turn are protected by mountains difficult to pass. The second condition is that that although most of its coasts do not have harbors, the existing harbors are vast and very convenient ... Thirdly, Italy is located in various climatic zones, according to which there are various animals, plants and, in general, all objects necessary for man. Italy stretches for the most part from north to south; Sicily, considerable in length and width, joins Italy and, as part of it ... Almost its entire length stretches the Apennine mountains, having plains and fruitful hills on both sides, so that there is no part of Italy that does not have the comforts of mountains and plains. To all this must be added big sizes and 7 many rivers and lakes, as well as in many places warm and cold springs, beneficial to health. In addition, there are many different kinds of metals, building materials, food for humans and domestic animals, so that it is impossible to express in words all the abundance and high qualities of the fruits that grow here. Finally, being located among the most numerous peoples of Hellas and the best parts of Libya2, on the one hand, it surpasses the countries surrounding it in its dignity and size, which facilitates its dominance over them; on the other hand, due to its proximity to them, it can easily maintain its power over these areas. Transl. F. G. Mishchenko. 1 Stage is a measure of length. The Roman stadia was 185 m, the Attic - 178 m. 2 Libya (Libya) - The northern coast of Africa (located between Numidia and Cyrenanca), its lands were famous for their fertility. No. 2. DESCRIPTION OF ITALY (Polybius, II, 14, 15) Polybius was born in Arcadia at the turn of the III and II centuries. BC, died in the 20s of the II century. He came from a wealthy family. During the period of the struggle between Rome and Perseus, he openly adhered to anti-Roman positions, and after the defeat of the latter, he was sent as a hostage to Rome. During his stay in the capital of a powerful state (Polybius lived there intermittently for 16 years), his political views changed significantly. Oi met with representatives of the ruling elite of Roman society and became a fan of the Roman political system. During his life, Polybius traveled extensively, as he believed that a historian should "trust his eyes more than his ears". He visited Africa and Spain, was an eyewitness to the destruction of Carthage and Numantia, visited Egypt, Gaul, knew Greece perfectly. The main work of Polybius is the "World History" in 40 books, of which only 5 books have come down to IAS, some have been preserved in fragments. The events of 264-146 are described there. to i. e. The purpose of the work of Polybius, according to the author himself, is to show how and why the Romans subjugated most of the surrounding tribes and peoples to their power. The ideal political system, according to Polybius, was a combination of aristocratic, monarchical and democratic principles - a mixed form of government, the implementation of which found its expression in the Roman "State. The admiration of Polybius before the power of Rome is so great that he justifies even the conquest of his homeland - Greece. Polybius is more critical of his sources than other historians of antiquity, there is relatively little legendary in his writings. Thanks to this, Polybius's information about the events of Mediterranean history at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd century. for the most part can be considered reliable. All Italy is like a triangle, one side of which, facing the east, is washed by the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Gulf adjacent to it, the other side, facing south and west, is washed by the Sicilian and Tyrrhenian 8 seas. Approaching each other, these sides form the southern cape at the top. Italy, called Kokynthos and separating the Ionian and Sicilian seas. The third side, going north along the mainland, forms the entire length of the Alpine ridge, which starts from Massalia "and the lands lying above the Sardinian Sea, and stretches continuously to the deepest part of the Adriatic; only a short distance from the sea the ridge ends. The southern edge of the named the ridge should be taken as the base of a triangle, south of it stretch the plains, occupying the most extreme northern part of Italy, which we are now talking about, in fertility and vastness they surpass the rest of the plains of Europe known to us.The general appearance of these plains is also a triangle its summit is formed by the junction of the so-called Apennine and Alpine mountains near the Sardinian Sea above Massalia. On the north side of the plain, as said above, the Alps stretch for two thousand two hundred stadia, and along the south side the Apennines stretch for a space of three thousand six hundred stadia. the entire figure is served by the coast of the Adriatic Gulf; the length of the base from the city of the Seine 2 to the deepening of the bay more than two thousand five hundred stadia, so that the volume of the plains mentioned above is a little less than ten thousand stadia. It is not easy to list all the advantages of this land. So, it abounds in bread to such an extent that in our time it is not uncommon for a Sicilian "medimn 3" of wheat to cost four obols 4, a medimn of barley two obols, the same is worth a meter5 of wine; buckwheat and millet will be born from them in incredible abundance. How many acorns grow on these plains in oak forests, scattered at some distance from one another, everyone can best conclude from the following: in Italy they kill great amount pigs, partly for domestic use, partly for food for the troops, and animals are brought mainly from these plains. The cheapness and abundance of various foodstuffs can be most accurately judged by the fact that travelers in this country, entering a tavern, do not ask about the cost of individual consumer goods, but pay as much as the owner takes per person. As a rule, tavern keepers, often giving everything to their heart's content, take for it half an aos, which is a fourth of an obol; only in rare cases is a higher fee charged. On both sides of the Alps, both on the one that faces the river Rodan6, and on the other, descending to the plains named above, hilly and low-lying areas are densely populated: those lying towards Rodan and to the north are occupied by Galatians, who are called traisals, and those facing the plains are inhabited by the Taurpskamn, the Agons, and many other barbarian peoples. The Galatians are called transalpians not by their origin, but by their place of residence, for the word trans means 9 “on the other side”, and the Romans call those Galatians who live on the other side of the Alps transalpians. The tops of the mountains, due to the scarcity of the soil and the accumulation of eternal snows on them, are completely uninhabited. Perez. F. G. Mishchenko. i Massalil - a colony founded by the inhabitants of Focene on the Ligurian coast of Gaul at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. 2 Sena is a city in Umbria on the Adriatic coast. 3 Medimn - the Greek measure of loose bodies, equal to 51.84 liters. 4 Obol - a small coin in Greece, equal to 4-5 kopecks. 5 A meter is a measure of liquids in Athens, equal to 39 liters. 6 The Rodan River is the Roman name for the Rhone. No. 3. THE ANCIENT POPULATION OF ITALY (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, I, 26, 30) The biographical data on Dionysius of Halicarnassus that have come down to us are extremely scarce. It is only known that he came to Rome during the last period of the civil wars and lived there for over 20 years. The work, which was the fruit of his whole life, is called "Ancient Roman History" in 20 books. It covers events from the most ancient periods of the existence of Italy to the beginning of the Punic boi "w. Only the first 9 books have survived from the work of Dionysius, and the rest have come down to us in fragments. Dionysius tries to prove the common origin of the Greeks and Romans, so that, as he said, " thus make it more bearable for the Greeks to submit to the Romans". He attaches great importance to the control of the gods by the destinies of the peoples. Dionysius often transfers the political atmosphere of his contemporary era to the early period of the history of Rome, so his data must be taken critically. ... Some consider the Tyrrhenians to be the original inhabitants of Italy, others consider them aliens. About their name, those who consider them a native people say that it was given to them from the type of fortifications that they were the first living in that country to erect in their own country: among the Tyrrhenians, as well as among the Hellenes, surrounded by walls and well-covered buildings - towers - called thyrses or tyrrs; some believe that their name is given to them because they have such buildings, just as the mosquitoes living in Asia are so named because they live behind high wooden palisades, as if in towers, which They are called Mosinamn. Others, who consider them migrants, say that Tyrrhenus was the leader of the migrants, and that the Tyrrhenians also got their name from him. And he himself was by origin an Lpdian from the land formerly called Maeonia ... At Atiea ... two sons were born: Lid and Tyrren. Of these, Lid, who remained in his homeland, inherited the power of his father, and by his name the land began to be called Lydia; Tyrrhenus, having become the head of those who left for the settlement, founded a large colony in Italy and assigned to all participants in the enterprise a name derived from his name. 10 Hellanicus of Lesbos "says that the Tyrrhenians used to be called Pelasgians 2; when they settled in Italy, they took the name that they had in his time ... The Pelasgians were expelled by the Hellenes, they left their ships near the Spinet River in the Ionian Gulf, captured the city Croton 3 on the isthmus and, moving from there, founded a city now called Tnrsenia ... But it seems to me that everyone who considers Tyrrhenians and Pelasgians to be one people is mistaken; that they could borrow a name from each other is not surprising, since how something similar happened among some other peoples, both Hellenic and barbarian, such as, for example, the Trojans 4 and Phrygians 5, who lived close to each other (after all, many peoples consider their origin to be common, and such peoples differ only by name, and not by nature). Atines, Umbrians, and Avzones6 and many other peoples by the Tyrrhenians. After all, the long neighborhood of peoples makes it difficult for distant inhabitants to distinguish them accurately. Many historians assumed that the city of Rome was also a Tyrrhenian city. I agree that there is a change of name among peoples, and then a change in way of life, but I do not recognize that two peoples can exchange their origin; I rely in this case on the fact that they differ from each other in many respects, especially in speech, and none of them retains any resemblance to the other. “After all, the Crotons,” as Herodotus 7 says, “do not speak the same language with anyone living in their neighborhood, nor do the Plakpians have a common language with them. It is clear that they brought with them the peculiarities of the language, moving to this country, and protect their language. Does it seem surprising to anyone that the Crotonians speak the same dialect as the Placians living in the Hellespont, since both were originally Pelasgians, and that the language of the Crotonians does not resemble the language of the Tyrrhenians, who live in close proximity with them. .. Based on such evidence, I think that the Tyrrhenians and Pelasgians are different peoples. I also do not think that the Tyrrhenians come from Lydia 8, because they do not speak the same language, and it cannot even be said about them that if they do not speak the same language, they still retain some turns of speech of their native land. They themselves believe that the gods of the Lydians are not the same as theirs, and the laws and way of life are completely different, but in all this they differ more from the Lydians than even from the Pelasgians. Closer to the truth are those who claim that they are a people who did not come from anywhere, but of native origin, since, moreover, it is found that this is a very ancient people, having neither a common language nor way of life with any other tribe. Nothing prevents the Hellenes from designating it with such a name, as it were, because of the construction of towers for housing, or, as it were, by the name of their ancestor. The Romans, on the other hand, designate them by other names, namely: after the name of Etruria9, the land in which they live, they call the people themselves Etruscans. And for their experience in the performance of sacred services in temples, in which they differ from all other peoples, the Romans now call them the less understandable name of Tusks, earlier they called them, clarifying this name by its Greek meaning, Tiosks (from the Greek verb 86sh - I offer sacrifice ); they themselves call themselves in exactly the same way (as in other cases) after the name of one of their leaders, the Rasenni ... Phil 10 Pelasgians, who did not die, scattered over other colonies and in a small number from their former large composition, having mixed politically with the natives, she remained in those (places where, over time, their descendants, together with others, founded the city of Rome ... Translated by V. S. Sokolov. 5th century BC, wrote about the early epochs of the origin of peoples, in his writings there is a lot of myth.2 The Pelasgians are the pre-Greek inhabitants of Greece, who, according to tradition, moved to Central Italy and occupied Etruria and Latium. 3 Croton is a Greek colony in southern Italy. * Trojans - residents of the city of Troy, located in the northwestern part of Asia Minor. 5 Phrygians are the inhabitants of Phrygia, a country located in the western part of the Asia Minor peninsula. 6 Latins, Umbrians and Avzones - the tribes that inhabited the regions of Central Italy. 7 Herodotus - the first major Greek historian, lived in the 5th century. BC e. Received the name of the "father of history" (Cicero). 8 Lydia is a country in Asia Minor. 9 Etruria is a region located on the western coast of Italy, bounded by the Apennines and the Tiber River. 10 Fila - the name of the tribe among the Greeks, was divided into phratries and clans. No. 4. THE LEGEND OF THE FOUNDATION OF ROME (Dionysius, Roman Antiquities, I, 72-73) In view of the fact that there are many disagreements both about the time of foundation (of the city of Rome) and about the personality of its founder, I myself thought that it is not at all necessary that, as everyone admits, its founders appear under the guise of a hostile invasion. The very ancient historian Cephalus Gergitius ■ says that the city was founded by the second generation after the Trojan War2, by people who escaped from Ilion together with Aeneas 3, but the founder of the city calls the leader of the colony, Roma, who was one of the sons of Aeneas. He says that Aeneas had four sons: Ascanius, Euryleon, Romulus and Remus. The same time and the same founder of the city are indicated by Demator, and Agatillus, and some others ... Although I could point out many other Greek writers who speak differently about the founders of the city of Rome, in order not to seem verbose, I will turn to Roman historians. The Romans do not have a single ancient historian or logographer. Everyone (who wrote about it) borrowed something from the legends preserved from antiquity in the sacred tables. Some of these historians report that the founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, were the sons of Aeneas, others that they were the sons of the daughter of Epeus, but they do not indicate from which father. They were allegedly given by Aeneas as hostages to the king of the aborigines Latin, when a friendship agreement was concluded between the locals and the newcomers. The Latin greeted them cordially and surrounded them with all sorts of cares, and since he had no male offspring, he made them, after his death, heirs of part of his kingdom. Others say that after the death of Aeneas, Ascanius inherited the whole kingdom of Latina and divided it with his brothers Romulus and Remus into three parts. He himself founded Alba5 and some other cities, but Remus named Capua after the name of the progenitor Kapis, Anchises after the name of his grandfather Anchises, Aeneia, later called Janiculus, after the name of the father of Aeneas; named the city of Rome after his own name. After Rome had remained uninhabited for some time, other colonists came there, sent from Alba under the leadership of Romulus and Remus, and captured the previously founded city. The first time this city was founded shortly after the Trojan War, and the second time 15 generations later. If anyone wants to look deeper into the past, it will be found that there was a third Rome, earlier than the next two, founded before the arrival of Aeneas and the Trojans in Italy. And this was written not by some random historian, or from new ones, but by Antiochus of Syracuse, whom I mentioned earlier. He writes that when Morgetes reigned in Italy (and Italy was then called the coastal land from Tarentum to Poseidonia), a fugitive from Rome came to him. It is he who says: “When Ital grew old, Morget reigned; a man came to him, a fugitive from Rome, named Sikel. According to this Syracuse historian, therefore, some ancient Rome is found, which existed even before the Trojan times. However, whether it was on the very spot on which the great city now stands, or whether there was any other place with the same name, he leaves this unexplained, and I myself cannot decide it. Transl. V. S. Sokolova. 1 Cephalus Gereitiy - except for the message of Dionysius, there is no more information about him. 13 2 The Trojan War - a war waged by the Achaean troops against Troy (Ilion) - a city located in the northwestern part of Asia Minor. T1ish after a long siege, Troy was captured. These events took place at the end of the 12th century. to i. e. 3 Aeneas, the legendary king of the Dardanians, one of the tribes of Asia Minor, according to legend, after the destruction of the city of Troy, fled to Italy and became the "ancestor" of the Roman people. ■> In Greece, the authors of the first prose works (VI-V centuries BC) were called logographers. 5 Alba is one of the oldest cities in Central Italy. No. 5. THE LEGEND OF THE FOUNDATION OF ROME (Titus of Livy, I, 3-7). Titus of Livy - Roman historian of the times of the formation of the empire. He was born in 59 BC. e in the Italian city of Patavia (modern Padua), died in 17 and. e. Livy is the author of a monumental work in 142 books, called "Roman history from the founding of the city" (that is, Rome). Of these books, only 35 have survived: from the first to the tenth and from the twenty-first to the forty-fifth. The first ten books contain events from the founding of Rome to 293 BC. e., in books twenty-one - forty-fifth - a description of the events of 218-168 is given. BC e. The contents of the remaining books are known from brief annotations, the so-called epitomes, compiled in the 4th century BC. n. e. The work of Livy had a significant impact on all subsequent Roman historiography and had many imitators. In his political views, Livy was to a large extent the ideologist of the ruling classes of the times of the principate. The slogan Pax Rornana (Roman peace), officially proclaimed by Augustus, was widely reflected in his Roman History. The value of the first ten books of the "Roman History" is relatively small, there is a lot of fantastic there, Livy attaches great importance to signs, oracle predictions, etc. The information reported by him in books twenty-one to forty-five is more reliable, which describes the Punic wars and the international situation of that time. The whole work of Livy was marked by the tendency with which it was written: the preface says that the purpose of the work is to describe those qualities and virtues of the Roman people that helped him achieve such strength and power. Thanks to this "romanocentric" position, a large number of events that were important in the history of the Mediterranean fall out of the author's field of vision. Very often in the writings of Livy one can see the political views of those historians whose works he used completely uncritically. All these remarks must be taken into account, using the "Roman History" of Titus Livius as a historical source. The son of Aeneas, Ascanius, had not yet reached the age to take power, but this power was safely retained by him until the period of his maturity; for such a long time, the Latin state, the kingdom of his grandfather and father, survived with the boy thanks to female protection - such a capable woman was mother Ascania Lavinia. This Ascanius, due to an excess of population in the city of Lavinia, so named by his father in honor of his wife, provided his mother with a flourishing for that time and rich city, and he himself founded a new one at the foot of 14 Alban Mountain, which he called Long (Longa) Alba, for, according to his position, he stretched out over a mountain range. Almost thirty years passed between the founding of Lavinia and the colony of Alba Longa, when the power of the state increased to such an extent that neither after the death of Aeneas, nor during the reign of a woman, nor even in the first years of the reign of a young man, neither the leader of the Etruscans Mezentius, nor other neighbors dared to raise weapons . According to the peace treaty, the Albula River, now called the Tiber, became the border between the Etruscans and the Latins. Then Ascanius' son Silvius reigned, so named because he was born in the forest. He had a son, Aeneas Silvius, and THIS one had Latin Silvius. Oi founded several colonies. The ancient Latins were named after him. Then, for all the kings of Alba, the nickname Sylvius remained. Further, after a number of other kings, Proca ruled. He had sons Numitor and Amulius. The ancient kingdom of the Silvii was bequeathed to Numitor, as the eldest son. But the power turned out to be higher than the will of the father and the right of seniority: having driven away his brother, Amulius reigned; to one crime he joined another, by killing his brother's son; his brother's daughter - Rhea Sylvia - he deprived of hope for offspring, making her a vestal under the guise of honor. But, I believe, such a strong city and state, second only to the power of the gods, owed its appearance to the predestination of fate. When the Vestal gave birth to twins, she declared the god of war Mars to be the father of this obscure offspring, either because she believed in it, or because she considered it more honorable to make the god responsible for her crime. However, neither the gods nor the people were able to protect her and the children from the cruelty of the king: the priestess in chains was thrown into prison, and the children were ordered to be thrown into the river. But by chance, or by the will of the "gods", the Tiber burst its banks and formed calmly standing water, so that nowhere could it be approached to its true channel; at the same time, the messengers hoped that the children would drown even in such water. So, considering themselves to have fulfilled By order of the king, they threw the children into the nearest puddle, where the Ruminal fig tree (they say it was called Romulus) is now located. In those places there was then a vast desert. There is a legend that when the floating trough in which the boys were thrown out, after the water subsided in a dry place, a she-wolf, coming from the surrounding mountains to get drunk, went to the crying of the children, she began to nurse them with such meekness that the king's chief shepherd, named Faustulus, found her licking the children, he brought them home and gave them to his wife to raise Larentius: Thus “they were born and thus brought up; when they grew up, then, not staying in the shepherd's hut or near the flocks, they, hunting, wandered through the forests. burdened with booty, they divided their loot among the shepherds, and from this day to day increasing retinue engaged in business and jokes. Already at that time there was a festival of Lupercalia. It consisted in the fact that naked youths competed in running, accompanying with jokes and fun the worship of the god Pan . This holiday became famous; and behold, when Romulus and Remus indulged in games, the robbers, irritated by the loss of prey, ambushed them; Romulus fought back, and Remus was captured and, in addition, presented to King Amulius as an accused. Their main fault was that they attacked the fields of Numitor and with a gang of young men drove cattle from there, like enemies. As a result, Remus was handed over to Numitor for execution. From the very beginning, Faustulus suspected that he was bringing up royal children; he knew that they had been thrown out at the command of the king; coincided with the time when he found them; but, not being completely sure, he did not want to reveal this, unless chance would fall or necessity would force him. The need came earlier. And so, under the influence of fear, he reveals everything to Romulus. By chance, Numitor, when he was keeping Remus in custody and heard about the twin brothers, flashed the thought of grandchildren when comparing their age and the character of the captive, who did not at all resemble a slave. Through questioning, he came to the same result and almost recognized Remus. Thus "the king is forged from all sides intrigues. Romulus, not considering himself strong for open action, does not attack the king with a gang of young men, but orders each shepherd to arrive on his own way at a certain time to the palace. From the side of Numitor's dwelling, he appears on the Remus Square, So they killed the king. Numitor, at the beginning of the confusion, declaring that the enemy had invaded the city and attacked the palace, recalled the Albanian youth to defend the fortress, and when he saw that the brothers, having killed the king, were coming to him with a greeting, he immediately convenes a meeting, exposes the brother’s crime against him, indicates the origin, birth and upbringing of grandchildren, tells how they were found out, how the tyrant was immediately killed, and declares that he is the culprit of this. They hailed their grandfather as king, and the ensuing unanimous exclamations of the crowd secured his royal name and power. wished to found a city in the places where they were found and brought up. In addition, there was an excess of the Albanian and Latin population; shepherds joined them, all this gave hope that both Alba and Lavinius would be small in comparison with the city they were about to found. But these calculations were mixed with the harmful influence of grandfather's evil - a passion for royal power, which resulted in a shameful battle that arose due to an unimportant circumstance. Since the brothers were twins and it was impossible to decide matters on the basis of primacy by birth, Romulus chooses Palatinskin, and Rem chooses Aveptine Hill for divination, so that the gods, the patrons of those places, indicate with signs who to name the city and who to rule it. They say that a sign - 6 kites - appeared earlier to Remus, and it was already announced when their double number appeared to Romulus, and both of them were welcomed by the crowd of adherents as king: some demanded royal power for their leader, based on the advantage of time, others - on the number of birds. Scolding arose, and the irritation caused by it led to a fight, during which Rem was killed in a dump. More common, however, is the legend that Remus, laughing at his brother, jumped over the walls of the new city; enraged by this, Romulus killed him, saying: "So it will be with anyone who jumps over my walls." Thus, Romulus alone took possession of the kingdom, and the city was named after the founder. Transl. L. Klevanopa. ; No. 6. REFORM OF SERBIA TULLIUS (Dionysius, Roman Antiquities, IV, 15-18) He (Servius Tullius) ordered all the Romans to sign up and evaluate their property for silver, fastening the testimony of the usual swear that the information is fair and that the property was valued completely and according to the most a high price, announce which father is descended from who, indicate their age, name their wives and children, and to which branch of the city each is assigned or to which district of the countryside. Anyone who did not give such an assessment, he threatened with deprivation of property, corporal punishment and sale into slavery. This law existed among the Romans for a very long time. When everyone had made an assessment, he took the notes and, having become acquainted with their large number and with the amount of property, introduced the best of all political structures, as reality has shown, the source of the greatest benefits for the RC, blah. This political structure was as follows: in the first he singled out the category from the total number of those who had the highest assessment of property, no less than a hundred mtsn "[for each]. Dividing these citizens into 80 centuries 2 [suckers], he ordered them to have a complete structure: Argolic shields, spears, copper helmets, armor, greaves and swords. He, in turn, divided them into two parts: he filled 40 centuries with young people, to whom he entrusted military operations in the open field, and 40 with more elderly people, who, in the event of the departure of young people, were to remain. .Ill /7 to stay in the city and guard its walls from the inside. That was the first class. In the war, he took first place in the ranks of the phalanx. Further, in the second category, he singled out the rest of those who had property ^ less than ten thousand drachmas, or not less than seventy-five minas [for each]. Dividing them into 20 centuries, he ordered them to have the same weapons as the first ones, only he didn’t give them pins and instead of Argol spets, he gave them oblong quadrangular shields. Having singled out among them people over forty-five years old from people of military age, he formed from them 10 centuries of young warriors who were supposed to fight in front of the walls of the city, and 10 centuries of older "age, which he ordered to guard the walls. Such was the second category, in they formed among the advanced fighters.The third category he made up of those, among the rest, who had property worth less than seven thousand five hundred drachmas or not less than fifty mines [each]. , which he did not give even to the second category, but also in relation to the leggings.He divided this category into 20 centuries and, in the same way as in the first two categories, distributed them according to age and provided 10 prices of houris for young soldiers and 10 centuries for older ones. The place of these centuries in the battle was behind the commanders of the advanced fighters.Then, having again selected from the remaining those who had property less than five drachmas, not less than twenty-five mines [for each], he formed a fourth category of them. And he divided them into 20 centuries, of which 10 he filled with people in the prime of life and 10 others with whiter older ones, just as he did with the previous ranks. As weapons, he ordered them to have oblong shields, swords and spears and to occupy the last place in the ranks. The fifth category of people who have property of less than twenty-five minutes, but not less than twelve and a half minutes, he divided into 30 centuries, but he also filled them according to age: 15 of these centuries he gave to the elderly and 15 to the young. He ordered them to arm themselves with throwing spears and prash and fight out of order. To the four centuries, who had no weapons, he ordered to accompany the armed ones. Of the four centuries, two consisted of gunsmiths and carpenters and other craftsmen who made everything necessary for military affairs; the other two are trumpeters and buglers, and those who know how to proclaim military signals on other instruments. Centuries, made up of artisans, accompanied soldiers from the second category, and were also divided according to 18 years of age, and one centuria accompanied the young and the other the elderly; the trumpeters and buglers were attached to the centuriae of the fourth rank. And of these, one centuria consisted of the young, the other of the elderly. The centurions [lohagi], who were chosen from among the most noble, each trained their centuria to carry out all military commands. Such was the arrangement of the foot troops: phalanxes4 and lightly armed detachments. He [Servius Tullius] made up the whole cavalry from people who had the greatest property and were most prominent in their origin. He divided them into 18 centuries and added them to the first eighty centuries of the Falangists. The chiefs of the equestrian centuries [suckers] were also the most prominent and noble people. All the rest of the citizens, having property of less than twelve and a half mines, exceeding all the above named, he placed in one centuria, exempted from military service and from paying taxes. There were 193 centuries in all categories in the place. The first class, together with the riders, consisted of 98 centuries; second class - 22 centuries, counting two centuries of artisans; third class - 20 centuries; the fourth - again 22 centuries, along with trumpeters and buglers; the fifth class is 30 centuries; the sixth class, placed after all, is only one century of poor people. First V. S. Sokolova. 1 Mina is the monetary unit in Greece, equal to approximately 450 g; one gold mine is equal to five silver mines. 2 Centuria (qualified) - a division of citizens on property grounds. According to the constitution of Servius Tullius, there were 193 such centuries. 3 Drachma is an Attic silver coin equal to 35 kopecks. gold. 4 Phalanx - a detachment of troops fighting in close formation on foot. No. 7. THE ORIGIN OF THE TRIBUNATE (Titus Livni, II, 23, 24, 27-33) There was a threat of war with the Volskamps, "and within the state itself there were discords, since the plebeians burned with hatred for the patricians, mainly because of those who went into bondage The dissatisfied among the plebeians murmured that, fighting outside the homeland in defense of freedom and power, at home they were in captivity and oppression of fellow citizens, that the freedom of the plebeians is more secure in time of war than in time of peace, and more among enemies, than among fellow citizens. This hatred, already ready to burst, was kindled by the plight of a prominent person. He, in his advanced years, rushed to the forum 2, Pointing to the signs of all his misfortunes. His clothes were covered with dirt, and had an even more vile appearance his body, emaciated from pallor and thinness, moreover, the regrown beard and hair gave his face a wild look.However, despite such a disgrace, it was possible to recognize him; they said that he was a centurion; th military distinctions; he himself showed in several places scars on his chest, testifying to his valiant battles. To the questions of the crowd that surrounded him like a people's assembly, where did this view come from, where did such a disgrace come from, he answered that, while serving in the Sabine war4, he owed a debt, because as a result of the devastation of the field, he not only lost crops, but his house was set on fire, everything was plundered, cattle was stolen; just at this difficult time, a military tax was imposed on him. The debt that grew from interest first deprived him of his father's and grandfather's land, then of the rest of his property, and, finally, like consumption, got to the body; the creditor not only took him into slavery, but put him in a dungeon and dungeons. Then he showed his back, disfigured by traces of fresh blows. Seeing and hearing this, the people raised a great cry. The noise is not limited to the forum, but resounds throughout the city. Debtors<в оковах и "без оков со всех сторон бросаются на улицу, умоляя «ниритоз5 о защите. Везде находятся такие, кто охотно примыкает к восставшим; со всех сторон многочисленные толпы по всем дорогам с криком бегут на форум. Те сенаторы, которые были тогда случайно «а форуме, с большою опасностью для себя попали в эту толпу, и она дала бы волю рукам, если бы консулы Публий Серишшй и Аппнй Клавдий не вмешались поспешно в дело подавления восстания. Но толпа, обратившись к him, стала показывать свои окозы. Она говорила: вот награда за ее службу. Каждый с упреком говорил о своих ратных подвигах в различных местах. Скорее с угрозой, чем покорно, плебеи требуют созыва сената и окружают курию, желая сами собраться и руководить решением общественного собрания. Консулы с трудом нашли лишь очень немногих случайно подвернувшихся сенаторов; прочие побоялись показаться не только в курии, но даже и на форуме, и по малолюдству сенат не мог устроить никакого совещания. Тогда толпа решает, что над ней издеваются и умышленно затягивают дело, что отсутствующие сенаторы поступают так не случайно, не из страха, а из желания затормозить дело, что колеблются и сами консулы и, несомненно, несчастие народа служит только предметом насмешки. Дело было уже близко к тому, что даже и власть консула не могла обуздать раздраженной толпы, когда, наконец, собираются опоздавшие сенаторы, не зная, что рискованнее - медлить или итти. Когда курия уже наполнилась, то полного согласия не было не только между сенаторами, но и между самими консулами. Ап- пий, человек крутого права, полагал, что дело надо повести консульскою властью-схватить одного, другого, тогда остальные 20 успокоятся; более склонный к мягким мерам Сервилий полагал, что возбужденное настроение легче успокоить, чем переломить насильственно. Перев. Л. Клеванова. " Вольски -■ одно из древнейших племен Италии, обитало в Лации по берегам реки Лирис до впадения ее в море. Римляне вели с вбльскамп длительную борьбу, которая закончилась покорением последних. 2 Форум - центральная часть города Рима, расположенная на восточной стороне Капитолийского и северной части Палатинского холмов, где происходили народные собрания, заключались различные сделки и т. д. 3 Центурион - командующий центурией, отрядом солдат, состоявшим первоначально из 100 человек (а в более позднее время нз 60). 4 Сабинская война - война римлян с племенем сабинян, занимавшим области на северо-восток от Рима. 6 Квириты-почетное название римских граждан. № 8. ЗАКОНЫ XII ТАБЛИЦ Известный под именем «XII таблиц» (или, по более поздней терминологии, «Законов XII таблиц») памятник древнеримского права приписывается обыкновенно децемвирам и датируется 451-450 гг. до н. э. (Ливии, III, 34-37. Диодор, XII, 23-26). До наших дней он сохранился только в скудных, подчас очень темных по своему смыслу отрывках, которые мы находим у позднейших латинских авторов. Кроме того, нередки случаи, когда наши сведения о постановлениях, содержащихся в XII таблицах, ограничиваются сообщениями какого-либо писателя нлн юриста о том, что будто бы еще в этом памятнике предусматривалось регулирование в определенном направлении тех или иных социальных отношений; при этом точной цитаты этого постановления авторы обыкновенно не дают. Таким образом, у исследователя, занимавшегося восстановлением текста этого памятника, получался двоякого рода материал: с одной стороны, сохранившиеся в литературных источниках (далеко не безупречные с точки зрения полноты и точности) извлечения из этого так называемого «котекса децемвиров», а с другой - глухие, порой, быть может, даже неправильно приписываемые XII таблицам сообщения о каких-то юридических нормах, которые действовали в раннюю эпоху Римской республики и которые впоследствии считалось небесполезным реставрировать для защиты интересов консервативных групп правящего класса позднего Рима. Такая двойственность материала вызвала необходимость выделения этой втсрой группы имевшихся в нашем распоряжении данных о памятнике; такого рода сообщения приводятся, с указанием их автора, в круглых скобках. Наряду с этим для уяснения смысла переводимого текста нам представлялось целесообразным отказаться от лаконизма, присущего памятнику, и дополнить некоторые постановления отдельными словами и даже целыми фразами. Такие дополнения введены в текст в "квадратных скобках. ТАБЛИЦА I 1. Если вызывают [кого-нибудь] на судоговорение, пусть [вызванный] идет. Если [он] не идет, .пусть [тот, кто вызвал], подтвердит [свой вызов] три "Свидетелях, а потом вдет его насильно. 2. Если [вызванный] измышляет отговорки [для неявки] или пытается скрыться, пусть [тот, кто его вызвал] наложит на него руку. 2" 3. Если препятствием [для явки вызванного на судоговорение] будет его болезнь или старость, пусть [сделавший вызов] даст ему вьючное животное . Павозки , если не захочет, представлять не обязан ". 4. Пусть поручителем [на судоговорении] за живущего своим хозяйством будет [только] тот, кто имеет свое хозяйство. За бесхозяйного гражданина поручителем будет тот, кто пожелает. 5. Nex... foreti, sanates 2. 6. На чем договорятся, о том пусть [истец] и просит [на судоговорении] 3. 7. Бели [тяжущиеся стороны] не приходят к соглашению, пусть [они] до полудня сойдутся для тяжбы на форуме или на комицни4. Пусть обе присутствующие стороны по очереди защищают [свое дело]. 8. После полудня [магистрат] утвердит требование той стороны, которая присутствует [при судоговорении]. 9. Если [на судоговорении] присутствуют обе стороны, пусть заход солнца будет крайним сроком [судоговорения]. ТАБЛИЦА II 1. (Гай, Институции, IV. 14: по искам в 1000 и более ассов 5 взыскивался [в кассу понтификов] судебный залог [в сумме 500 ассов], по искам на меньшую сумму - 50 ассов, так было установлено законом XII таблиц. Если спор шел о свободе какого-нибудь человека, то хотя бы его цена была наивысшей, однако, тем же законом.предписывалось, чтобы тяжба шла о залоге [за человека, свобода которого оспаривалась] [всего лишь] в размере 50 ассов). 2. Если одна из таких причин, как... тяжкая болезнь, или [совпадение дня судебного разбирательства] с днем, положенным для обвинения [кого-либо] ib изменеG, [будет препятствовать] судье, третейскому посреднику или тяжущейся стороне [явиться на судебное разбирательство], то [таковое] должно быть перенесено на другой день. 3. Пусть [тяжущийся], которому недостает свидетельских показаний, идет к воротам дома [неявигашегося на разбирательство свидетеля] и в течение трех дней во всеуслышание.взывает [к нему]. ТАБЛИЦА Ш 1. Пусть будут [даны должнику] 30 льготных дней после признания [им] долга или после постановления [против него] судебного решения. 2. [По истечении указанного срока] пусть [истец] наложит руку [на должника]. Пусть ведет его на судоговорение [для исполнения решения]. 22 3. Если [должник] не выполнил [добровольно] судебного решения и никто не освободил его от ответственности при судоговорении, пусть [истец] уведет его к себе и наложит на него колодки или оковы" весом не менее, а, если пожелает, то и более 15 фунтов. 4. [Во время пребывания в заточении должник], если хочет, пусть кормится за свой собственный счет. Если же он не находится на своем содержании, то пусть [тот, кто держит его в заточении], выдает ему по фунту муки в день, а при желании1 может давать и больше. 5. (А в л Гелл и й, Аттические ночи, XX, 1, 46: Тем временем [пока должник находился в заточении] он имел право помириться [с истцом], но если [стороны] не мирились, то [такие должники] оставались в заточении 60 дней. В течение этого срока их три раза подряд в базарные дни приводили к претору на комиции и [при этом] объявлялась присужденная с них сумма денег. В третий базарный день они предавались смертной казни или поступали в продажу за границу, за Тибр7). 6. В третий базарный день пусть разрубят должника на части. Если отсекут больше или меньше, то пусть это не будет вменено тм [в вину]8. 7. Пусть сохраняет [свою] силу навеки иск против изменника 9. ТАБЛИЦА IV 1. (Цицер он, О законах, III, 8, 19: ...С такой же легкостью был лишен жизни, как по XII таблицам, младенец [отличавшийся] исключительным уродством). 2. Если отец трижды продаст сына, то пусть сын будет свободен [от власти] отца. 3. (Цицерон, Филиппики, II, 28, 69; [Пользуясь] постановлением XII таблиц, приказал своей жене взять принадлежащие ей вещи и, отняв [у нее] ключ, изгнал [ее]). 4. (А в л Гелл и й, Аттические ночи, III, 16, 12: Мне известно, что [когда] женщина... родила на одиннадцатом месяце после смерти мужа, то [из этого] возникло дело, будто бы она зачала после того, как умер ее муж, ибо децемвиры написали, что человек рождается на десятом, а не на одиннадцатом месяце. ТАБЛИЦА V 1. (Гай, Институции, 1, 144-145: Предки [наши] утверждали, что даже совершеннолетние женщины вследствие присущего им легкомыслия должны состоять под опекою... Исключение допускалось только для дев-весталок, которых древние римляне в уважение к их жреческому сану освобождали от опеки. 1ак было постановлено законом XII таблиц). 23 2. (Г а и, Институции, II, 47: Законом XII таблиц было определено, что res mancipi l0, принадлежащие женщине, находившейся под опекою агнатов ", не подлежали давности за исключением лишь того случая, когда сама женщина передавала эти пещи с согласия опекуна). 3. Как кто распорядится на случай своей смерти относительно своего домашнего имущества или относительно опеки [над подвластными ему лицами], так пусть то и будет ненарушимым. 4. Если кто-нибудь, у кого нет подвластных ему лиц, умрет, не оставив распоряжений о наследнике, то пусть его хозяйство шзьмет себе [его] -ближайший агнат. 5. Если [у умершего] нет агнатов, пусть [оставшееся после него] хозяйство.возьмут [его] сородичи. 6. (Г а и, Институции, I, 155: По закону XII таблиц опекунами над лицами, которым не было.назначено опекуна по завещанию, являются пх агнаты). 7а. Если человек впал в безумие, то пусть власть над ним самим и над его имуществом возьмут его агнаты или его сородичи. 76. (Ульпиан, I, 1, pr. D., XXVII, 10: Согласно закону XI! таблиц, расточителю воспрещалось управление принадлежащим ему имуществом.) ((Ульпиан, Lib. sing, regularum XII 2: Закон XII таблиц повелевает безумному и расточителю, на имущество которых наложено запрещение, состоять на попечении их агнатов). 8а. (Ульпиан, Lib. sing, regularum, XXXX, 1: Закон XII таблиц передавал патрону наследство после римского гражданина из вольноотпущенников в там случае, если последний, не имея подвластных ему лиц, умирал, не оставив завещания). 86. (Ульпиан, I, 195, § 1, D., L. 16: Говоря [об отношениях между патроном и вольноотпущенником], закон указывает, что имущество вольноотпущенника переходит из той семьи в эту семью, (причем в данном случае] закон, .говорит [о семье, как совокупности] отдельных лиц12). 9а. (Гор дм а н, I, 6, с. III, 36: По закону XII таблиц имущество, состоящее в долговых требованиях [умершего к другим лицам], непосредственно [т. е. без выполнения каких-либо юридических формальностей] распределяется между сонаследниками в соответствии с их наследственными, долями). 96. (Диоклетиан, I, 26, с. II, 3: Согласно закону XII таблиц, долги умершего непосредственно разделяются [между его наследниками] соразмерно полученным [ими] долям наследства). 10. (Г а й, I, 1, рт. С, X, 2: Иск [о раздете наследства] "основывается на постановлении закона XII таблиц). 24 ТАБЛИЦА VI 1. Если кто заключает сделку самозаклада |3 или отчуждения вещи [в присутствии 5 свидетелей и весовщика], то пусть- слова, которые произносятся при этом, почитаются ненарушимыми. 2. (Цицерон, Об обязанностях, III, 16: По XII таблицам? считалось достаточным представить доказательства того, что было произнесено [при заключении сделки], и отказывавшийся от своих слов подлежал штрафу вдвое). 3. (Цицерон, Тор., IV, 23: Давность владения в отношении земельного участка [устанавливалась] в два иода, в отношении всех других вещей - в один год). 4. (Г а й, Институции, I, 3: Законом XII таблиц было- определено, что женщина, не желавшая установления вад собой власти мужа [фактом давностного с нею сожительства], должна, была ежегодно отлучаться из своего дома на три ночи и таким" образом прерывать годичное даввостное владение [ею]). 5а. (А в л Геллий, Аттические мочи, XX, 17, 7, 8: Собственноручно отстоять [свою вещь] при судоговорении... это значит- налюжить руку на ту вещь, о которой идет спер при судоговорении, [т. е. иными словами] состязаясь с противником, ухватиться рукой за спорную вещь и в торжественных выражениях отстаивать право на нее. Наложение руки на вещь производилось в- определенном месте в присутствии претора на ocHOBaHmr. XII таблиц, где было написано: «Если кто-нибудь собственноручно отстаивает свою вешь при судоговорении»). 56. (Павел, Fragm. Vat, 50: Закон XII таблиц утвердил- [отчуждение вещи] путем сделки, совершавшейся в присутствии 5 свидетелей и весовщика, а также путем.отказа от права собственности на эту вещь при судоговорении перед претором). 6. (Тит Ливии, III, 44: Защитники [Вергинии] требуют,. чтобы [Аппий Клавдий], согласно закону, им же самим проведенному, дал предварительное распоряжение относительно девушки в благоприятном для се свободы смысле). 7. Пусть [собственник] не трогает и не отнимает [принадлежащего ему] бревна [или жердей], использованных [другим человеком] на постройку здания или для посадки виноградника. 8. (Ульпиан, I, 1, pr. D., XLVII, 3: Закон XII таблиц непозволял ни отнимать, ни требовать как свою собственность украденные бревна и жерди, употребленные на постройку или Для посадки виноградника, но предоставлял при этом иск в Двойном размере [стоимости этих материалов] против того, кто* обвинялся в использовании их). " 9. Когда же виноград будет срезан, пока [жерди] не убраны!4... 25- ТАБЛИЦА VII 1. (Фест, De verborurn significatu, 4: Обход, [т. е. незастроенное место] вокруг здания, должен быть шириною два с половиной фута). " 2. (Гай, I, 13, D., X, 1: Нужно заметить, что при иске о размежевании границ необходимо соблюдать указание закона , установленное как бы по примеру следующего законодательного распоряжения, которое, как говорят, ■было проведено в Афинах Соловом: если вдоль соседнего участка выкапывался ров, то нельзя было переступать границы, ■ если [ставить] забор, то нужно отступать [от соседнего участка] на один фут, если - дом для жилья, то отступить на два фута, если копают яму или могилу, отступить настолько, насколько глубоко выкопана яма, если колодец - отступить на 6 футов, -если сажают оливу или смоковницу, отступить от соседнего участка на девять футов, а прочие деревья-на 5 футов). 3. (П л и н и й, Естественная история, 19, 4, 50: В XII таблицах не употреблялось совершенно слово «хутор» , а для обозначения его [пользовались] часто "Словом hortus [отгороженное место], [придавая этому значение] отцовского имущества). 4. (Цицерон, О зап<шах, I, 21, 55: XII таблиц занреща- .ли приобретение по давности межи; шириною в 5 футов). 5. (Цицерон, О законах, I, 21, 55: Согласно постановлению XII таблиц, когда военикает спор о границах, то мы про-из- зодим размежевание с участием 3 посредников). 6. (Гай, I, 8, D., VIII, 3: По закону XII таблиц ширина дороги по прямому направлению определялась в 8 футов, а на поворотах - в 16 футов). 7. Пусть [собственники придорожных участков] огораживают.дорогу, если они не убивают ее камнем, пусть едет на вьючном животном, где пожелает. 8а. Если дождевая вода причиняет вред... 86. (Павел, I, 5, D., XLIII, 8: Если протекающий по общественной земле ручей или водопровод причинял ущерб частному владению, то собственнику [последнего] давался иск на основании закона XII таблиц о возмещении убытков). 9а. (У ль пиан, I, 1, § 8, D., XLIII, 27: Закон XII таблиц приказывал принимать меры к тому, чтобы деревья на высоте 15 футов кругом подрезались для того, чтобы их тень не причиняла вреда соседнему участку). 96. (Пом пони й, I, 2, D., XLIII, 27: Если дерево с соседнего участка склонилось ветром на твой участок, ты на основании закона XII таблиц можешь предъявить иск об уборке его). 10. (Плиний, Естественная история, XVI, 5, 15: Законом XII таблиц разрешалось собирать жолуди, падающие с сосед- -него участка). 11. (Юстиниан, I, 41; I, II, 1: Проданные и переданные вещи становятся собственностью покупателя лишь в том случае, 26 если он уплатит продавцу покупную цену или обеспечит ему каким-либо образом удовлетворение [его требования], например, представит поручителя или даст что-либо в виде залога. Так было постановлено законом XII таблиц). 12. (Улыпиан, Lib. sing, regularum, II, 4: Если [наследо- ватель] делал следующее распоряжение: [отпускаю раба на волю под условием], что он уплатит моему наследнику 10 000 сестерциев, то хотя бы этот раб был отчужден от наследника, он все-таки должен получить свободу при уплате покупателю указанной суммы. Так было постановлено в законе XII таблиц). ТАБЛИЦА VIII 1а. Кто злую песню распевает 13. 16. (Цицерон, О республике, IV, 10, 12: XII таблиц установили смертную казнь за небольшое число преступных деяний и в том числе считали необходимым применение ее в том случае, когда кто-нибудь сложит или будет распевать песню, которая содержит в себе клевету или опозорение другого). 2. Если причинит членовредительство и не помирится с [потерпевшим], то пусть и ему самому будет причинено то же самое. 3. Если рукой или палкой переломит кость свободному человеку, пусть заплатит штраф в 300 ассов, если рабу- 150 ассов 4. Если причинит обиду, пусть штраф будет 25. 5. ...Сломает, пусть возместит. 6. (Ульпиаи, 1, 1, pr. D., IX, 1: Если кто пожалуется, что домашнее животное причинило ущерб, то закон XII таблиц повелевал или выдать [потерпевшему] животное, причинившее вред, или возместить стоимость нанесенного ущерба). 7. (Ульпиан, I, 14, § 3, D., XIX, 5: Если жолуди с твоего дерева упадут на мой участок, а я, выгнав скотину, скормлю их ей, то по закону XII таблиц ты не мог предъявить иска ни о потраве, ибо не на твоем участке паслась скотина, ни о вреде, причиненном животным, пи об убытках, нанесенных неправомерным деянием). 8а. Кто заворожит посевы... 86. Пусть не переманивает [на свой участок] чужого урожая. 9. (Плиний, Естественная история, 18, 3, 12: По XII таблицам смертным грехом для взрослого было потравить или сжать в ночное время урожай с обработанного плугом поля. предписывали [такого] обреченного [богине] Це- Рере человека предать смерти. Несовершеннолетнего [виновного в подобном преступлении] по усмотрению претора или подвергали бичеванию, или присуждали к возмещению причиненного вРеда в двойном размере). Ю. (Гай, Институции, I, 9, D., XLVII, 9: [Законы XII таблиц] повелевали заключить в оковы и после бичевания пре- 27 дать смерти того, «то поджигал строения или сложенные около дома скирды хлеба, если [виновный] совершил это преднамеренно. [Если пожар произошел] случайно, т. е. по неосторожности, то закон.предписывал, [чтобы виновный] возместил ущерб, a n-pi* его несостоятельности был подвергнут более легкому наказанию). 11. (Плиний, Естественная история, 17, 1, 7: В XII таблицах было предписано, чтобы за злостную порубку чужих деревьев виновный уплачивал по 25 ассов за каждое дерево). 12. Если совершавший в ночное время кражу убит,[та месте], то пусть убийство [его] будет считаться правомерным. 13. При свете дня... если сопротивляется с оружием [в руках], созови народ. 14. (Л в л Г ел ли й, Аттические «очи, XI, 18, 8: Децемвиры предписывали свободных людей, пойманных в краже с поличным, подвергать телесному наказанию п выдавать [головой] тому, у кого совершена кража, рабов же наказывать кнутом и сбрасывать со скалы; но [в отношении! .несовершеннолетних] было постановлено или подвергать их по усмотрению претора телесному наказанию, или взыскивать с них возмещение убытков). 15а. (Гай, III, 191: По закону XII таблиц был установлен штраф в размере тройной стоимости вещей в том случае, когда вещь отыскивалась у кого-либо при формальном обыске или когда она была принесена к укрывателю и найдена у него). 156. (Г а й, Институции, III, 192: Закон XII таблиц предписывает, чтобы при производстве обыска [обыскивающий] не «мел никакой одежды, кроме полотняной повязки, и держал в руках чашу). 16. Если предъявлялся иск о краже, [при которой вор не был пойман с "поличным], пусть [суд] решает спор [присуждением] двойной стоимости вещи. 17. (Гай, Институции, II, 45: Законом XII таблиц запрещается приобретение краденой вещи по давности). 18а. (Тацит, Анналы, VI, 16: Впервые XII таблицами было постановлено, чтобы никто не брал более одного процента [в месяц], тогда как до этого бралось по прихоти богатых). 186. (К а тон, О земледелии, Предисловие, 1: Предки наил имели [обыкновение] и положили в законах присуждать вора к. уплате двойной стоимости [украденной вещи], ростовщика к [взысканию] в четырехкратном размере [полученных процентов]). 19. (Павел, Libri V sentiarum, II, 12 11: По закону XII таблиц за вещь, сданную на хранение, дается иск б двойном размере стоимости этой вещи). 20а. (У л ь п н а>n, I, I, § 2, D., XXVI, 10: It should be noted that the accusation [of the guardian in the dishonest discharge of his duties] follows from the law of the XII tables). 28 206. (Tryphonian, I, I, 1, § 55, D., XXVI, 7: In the event of theft by the guardians of the property of their ward, it should be established whether, in relation to each of these guardians separately, that action in double amount, which was established in the XII tables against guardians). 21. Let him be devoted to the gods of the underworld, [i.e. e. curse], that patron who harms [his] client. 22. If [anyone] participated [in the transaction] as a witness or weigher, [and then] refuses to testify to this, then let [he be recognized as] dishonest and lose the right to be a witness. 23. (And in l Hell., Attic nights, XX, 1, 53: According to XII tables, caught<в лжесвидетельстве сбрасывался с Тарпейокой скалы). 24а. Если брошенное рукой копье полетит дальше, чем целил, пусть принесет [в жертву] барана. 246. (Плиний, Естественная история, XVIII, 3, 12; 8-9: По XII таблицам, за тайное истребление урожая [назначалась] смертная казнь... более тяжкая, чем за убийство человека). 25. (Гай, I, 236, рг. D., L, 16: Если кто-нибудь говорит о яде, то должен добавить, вреден ли он или полезен для здоровья, ибо и лекарства являются ядом). 26. (Порций, Lampo. Decl. in Catil, 19: Как мы знаем, в XII таблицах предписывалось, чтобы никто не устраивал в городе ночных сборищ). 27. (Гай, I, 4, D., XLVII, 22: Закон XII таблиц предоставлял членам коллегий [сообществ] право заключить между собою любые соглашения, лишь бы этим они не нарушали какого-нибудь постановления, касающегося общественного порядка. Закон этот, невидимому, был заимствован из законодательства Солона). ТАБЛИЦА IX 1-2. (Цицерон, О законах, III, 4, 11, 19, 44: Привилегий, [т. е. отступлений в свою пользу от закона], пусть не испрашивают. Приговоров о смертной казни римского гражданина «густь не выносят, иначе как в центуриатных комицнях... Пре- славные законы XII таблиц содержали два постановления, из которых одно уничтожало всякие отступления от закона в пользу отдельных лиц, а другое запрещало выносить приговоры о смертной казни римского гражданина, иначе как в центуриатных комициях). 3. (А в л Гелл и и, Аттические ночи, XX, 17: Неужели ты будешь считать суровым постановление закона, карающее смертною казнью того судью или посредника, которые были назначены при судоговорении [для разбирательства дела] и бы- ли уличены в 1том, что приняли денежную мзду по [этому] делу?) 29 4. Помпоиий, 1, 2, § 23, D., 1, 2: Квесторы, присутствовавшие при исполнении смертных приговоров, именовались уголовными квесторами, о них упоминалось даже в законе XII таблиц). 5. (Марциан, I, 3, D., XLV1II, 4: Закон XII таблиц повелевает предавать смертной казни того, кто подстрекает врага [римского народа к нападению на римское государство] или того, кто "Предает врагу римского гражданина). 6. (С а л ьв и ал, О правлении божьем, VIII, 5: Постановления XII таблиц запрещали лишать жизни без суда какого бы то ни было человека). ТАБЛИЦА X 1. Пусть мертвеца не хоронят и не сжигают в городе. 2. Свыше этого пусть не делают. Дров для [погребального костра] пусть топором не обтесывают. 3. (Цицерон, О законах, II, 23, 59: Ограничив расходы [на погребение] тремя саванами, одной пурпуровой туникою и десятью флейтистами, закон XII таблиц воспретил также и причитания [по умершим]). 4. Пусть [на похоронах] женщины щек не царапают и по умершим не причитают. 5. Пусть костей мертвеца не собирают, чтобы впоследствии совершить погребение (Цицерон, О законах, II, 23, 59: за ■исключением лишь того случая, когда смерть постигла на поле битвы или на чужбине). ба. (Цицерон, О законах, II, 23, 59: Кроме того, в законах устанавливаются еще следующие [правил а]: отменяется бгльзампрование [умащиваиие] рабов и питье круговой чаши. «Без пышного окропления, без длинных гирлянд, без "Курильниц»). бб. (Фсст, De verb, signif.. 154: В XII таблицах постановлено не ставить перед умершими напитков с миррою). 7. (Если кто-нибудь был награжден венком или сам лично, или за своих лошадей и рабов, [выступавших на играх], или если венок был дан ему за его доблесть, то при его смерти но возбранялось возложить венок на умершего как у него дома, так и на форуме, равным образом его родным дозволялось присутствовать на похоронах в венках). 8. А также золота с покойником пусть не кладут. Но если у умершего зубы были скреплены золотом, то не возбраняется похоронить или сжечь его с этим золотом. 9. (Цицерон, О законах, II, 24, 61: Закон запрещает без согласия собственника устраивать погребальный костер или могилу на расстоянии ближе чем 60 футов от принадлежащего ему здания). 30 10. (Цицерон, О законах, II, 24, 61: Закон запрещает приобретать по давности место захоронения, а равно и место сожжения трупа). ТАБЛИЦА XI 1. (Цицерон, О республике, II, 36, 36: [Децемвиры второго призыв а], прибавив две таблицы лицеприятных законов, [между прочим] санкционировали самым бесчеловечным законом запрещение браков между плебеями и патрициями) . 2. (Макробий, Sat., I, 13. 21: Децемвиры, которые прибавили две таблицы, предлагали народу утвердить исправление календаря). ТАБЛИЦА XII 1. (Гай, Институции, IV, 28: Законом был введен захват вещи в целях обеспечения долга, и -.по закону XII таблиц это было допущено против того, кто приобрел животное для принесения жертвы, не уплатил за него покупной цены, а также и против того, кто не представит вознаграждения за сданное ему в наем вьючное животное, с тем условием, чтобы плата за пользование была употреблена им на жертвенный пир). 2а. Если раб совершит кражу или причинит вред. 26. (Г а й, Институции, IV, 75, 76: Преступления, совершенные подвластными лицами или рабами, порождали иски об ущербе, по которым домовладыке или собственнику раба предоставлялось или возместить стоимость причиненного вреда, или выдать головою виновного... [Эти] иски установлены или законами, или эдиктом претора. К искам, установленным законами, [принадлежит], .например, иск о воровстве, созданный законом XII таблиц). 3. (Фест, De verb, signif., 174: Если приносит [на судоговорение] поддельную вещь или отрицает [самый факт] судоговорения, пусть претор назначит трех посредников и по их решению пусть возместит ущерб в размере двойного дохода [от спорной вещи]). 4. (Г а й, 3, D., XLIV, 6: Законом XII таблиц было запрещено жертвовать храмам ту вещь, которая является предметом судебного разбирательства; в противном случае мы подвергаемся штрафу в размере двойной стоимости вещи, но нигде не выяснено, должен лн этот штраф уплачиваться государству или тому лицу, которое заявило притязание на данную вещь). 5. (Ливии, VII, 17, 12: В XII таблицах имелось постановление о том, что впредь всякое решение народного собрания Должно иметь силу закона). зт 1 Ср. А. Геллий, Аттические ночи. «Может быть ты думаешь, что под «словом jumentum следует разуметь вьючное животное и поэтому находишь ■бесчеловечным тащить в суд на животном больного человека, который лежал у себя дома в постели. Но это вовсе не так... Jumentum имело не только то значение, какое придают ему в наше время, [оно] употреблялось для названия телеги, двигавшейся с помощью запряженных в нее животных. Агсега же называли прочную деревенскую повозку, которая была со всеч сторон закрыта н устлана подстилкой и которой имели обыкновение пользо- .еаться для перевозки тяжело больных и престарелых людей» (XVI, :26, 28, 29). 2 Источники не содержат данных для восстановления смысла отрывка. 3 Как указывал Гай в его комментарии к XII таблицам, вызванный на суд подлежал освобождению, если по дороге к магистрату заключал миро- шую с тем, кто предъявлял к нему исковое требование (1, 22, 1. D.. II. 4). 4 Комиций-место на форуме, где происходили народные собрания, отправлялось правосудие и приводились в исполнение приговоры. 5 Асе - римская монета, которая за время существования Римского государства несколько раз меняла свою стоимость. Позднейший асе равнялся по своей стоимости приблизительно 3 коп. и был в 6 раз дешевле.старинного асса. Некоторые исследователи справедливо высказывают сомнения в том, что в эпоху XII таблиц Рим мог уже иметь чеканную монету. 6 Status dies cum hoste - эта фраза, по мнению исследователей и переводчиков XII таблиц, указывает, что, согласно XII таблицам, законным поводом для отсрочки разбирательства искового требования являлось совпадение дня, назначенного для тяжбы, с днем, установленным для суда над чужестранцем. Действительно, у Цицерона можно прочесть указание иа то, -что hostis употребляется древними римлянами для обозначения чужеземца (peregrinus). (Цицерон, Об обязанностях, I, 12, 37). Просматривая другие источники, легко заметить, что в этот термин римляне вносили оттенок враждебности по отношению к данному чужеземцу. Hostis, следовательно, был не только чужестранец, по враг, с которым Рим вел борьбу. Поэтому данный термин употреблялся для обозначения не только внешнего, но также и внутреннего врага. По указанию ■юриста Павла, «к врагам причислялись те, кого сенат или закон признавал таковыми» (1, 5, § 1; D. IV, 5). Кроме того, трудно допустить, чтобы в эпоху XII таблиц в Риме существовало судебное регулирование отношений граждан с чужестранцами, н ввиду этого правильнее было бы, казалось, придать приведенной выше фразе XII таблиц смысл более грозной и интсн- .сивн-ой охраны спокойствия всей общины, всего ее господствующего.класса. ■Когда дело шло о суде над изменником, гласит, по нашему пониманию, данное указание XII таблиц, приостанавливалось действие правил, ограждавших интересы отдельного гражданина. 7 Это сообщение Авла Геллия о предании должников смертной казни не отвечает показаниям других источников, которые с полной определенностью указывают, что долгозое право использовалось в древнем Риме в целях эксплуатации кредиторами должников и обращения последних в рабское состояние. Ср. Дионисий Галикарнасский: «Где же те, - спрашивал Валерий, - koi"o за их долги обращаю в рабство?» (Аттические ночи, VI, "59. Ср. также Ливии, VI, 34). 8 Ср. А. Геллий, Аттические ночи, XX, 1, 48: «Если должник отдавался судом нескольким кредиторам, то децемвиры разрешали им, буде того пожелают, разрубить и разделить на части тело отданного им человека. [Но] я не читал и не слыхал, чтобы в старину кто-нибудь был разрублен на части». 9 См. примечание 6 на стр. 32. 10 Под res mancipi источники разумели имущественные объекты - земля на территории Италии, рабы, вьючные н упряжные животные (быки, лошади, ослы и мулы) и так называемые сельские сервитута, т. е. права на чужую вещь, связанные с собственностью на земельный участок (право прохода, прогона скота и т. д.). «32 » Агнатами в Риме назывались лица, считавшиеся родственниками, в силу того что они состояли (или могли бы состоять) под властью одного и того же домовладыкп. Поэтому, например, жена являлась агнаткон братьев своего мужа, ибо все они находились под властью отца последнего (т. е. ее свекра), если бы он был жив. 12 Фохт высказывает предположение о том, что соответственное постановление XII таблиц гласило следующее: «Если вольноотпущенник, не имез- ший подвпастных ему лиц, умирал без завещания, то движимое имущество нз его хозяйства переходило в хозяйство его патрона». 13 По мнению Варрона «nexus назывался свободный человек, отдававший себя в рабство за деньги, которые он был должен, до тех пор, пока ие выплатит этого долга». 14 Дополняя этот отрывок следующим образом: «После уборки винограда, пока жерди не вынуты, их нельзя брать насильно», Фохт предполагал, что смысл данного постановления заключается в том, что когда после уборки винограда жерди были вытащены нз земли, собственник мог заявить на них свое право собственности. 15 В законе XII таблиц было постановлено наказывать палками за публичную брань. Сенека говорит: «И у нас в XII таблицах предписывалось не заклинать чужих плодов (т. е. урожая на деревьях)». Перевод и примечания проф. И. И. Яковкина (взяты из «Хрестоматии по древней истории», под ред. акад. В. В. Струве, т. I, Москва, 1936). № 9. ПОРАЖЕНИЕ РИМЛЯН В КАВДИНСКОМ УЩЕЛЬЕ (Тит Ливши, IX, 1-6) Наступил год, ознаменованный поражением римлян и Кав- дднеким миром ", консулами.были тогда Т. Ветурий Кальвин и Сп. Постумий. Главным вождем самнитов в этом году был К- Понтпий, сын Геренния... Выступив [против римлян] с войском, Понтий стал лагерем близ Кавдина, соблюдая возможную осторожность и скрытность. Зная, что вожди римлян и их coii- ока находятся уже в Калации, [где они стояли лагерем], Понтий отправил туда десять.воинов, переодетые пастухами. В разных местах, недалеко от римских постов, он велел пастухам стеречь стада, а когда они попадутся <в руки неприятельских отрядов, на все расспросы отвечать одно и то же: «легионы самнитов в Апулии, всеми силами осаждают Луцерию и уже почти готовы овладеть ею». Слух этот, с умыслом распущенный, уже и прежде дошел до римлян; iho они поверили ему еще больше на основании единогласных показаний пленных. Итак, со стороны римлян решено было немедленно подать помощь жителям Лу- церии, .как хорошим и верным союзникам. Это было необходимо: потеря Луцерни могла повлечь за собою отпадение всей Апулии. Вопрос только заключался в том, какою дорогою идти к Луцерии: одна шла ровными и безопасными местами по берегу Верхнего моря, но представляла то неудобство., что была длиннее. Другая, много короче, шла через Кавдинские Фуркулы. А местность здесь такова: два глубоких, покрытых лесом ущелья тянутся между двумя непрерывными горными хребта- " Хрестоматия по истории древнего мира, т. Ill 23 мп; посередине они расходятся, образуя довольно обширную поляну, представлявшую прекрасное пастбище; через эти-то места надобно было проходить; сначала, чтобы достигнуть поляны, нужно было идти сквозь первое ущелье; и, чтобы выйти, с поляны, нужно было или вернуться опять тою же дорогою, или, если идти дальше, необходимо было проходить сквозь ущелье еще более тесное, чем первое. Римляне сошли на поляну другой дорогой по уступам скал; когда же они тотчас хотели выйти оттуда через ущелье, то.нашли, что оно завалено срубленными деревьями и огромными камнями. Тогда только поняли римляне, что попали в засаду; в том они убедились еще более, когда на вершинах господствовавших над ними воевыше- ний увидали неприятельских воинов. Римляне пытались вернуться той дорогой, которой вошли сюда, но нашли, что она загорожена засекой и вооруженными людьми. Сами собой, не дожидаясь приказания вождей, остановились наши воины. ...Уступая необходимости, римляне отправили послов, просит мира на сколько-нибудь сносных условиях, а если это будет невозможно, вызвать самнитов на бой. Понтий дал послам следующий ответ: «Война уже кончилась; но если римляне, будучи побеждены и находясь в его сласти, ©се еще не могут осознать того положения, в какое поставила их судьба, он пошлет их безоружных, в одних рубашках под ярмо 2. Прочие же условия мира будут равно безобидны и для победителя, и для побежденного: римские войска должны очистить землю самнитов, вывести оттуда свои поселения; отныне оба народа должны жить в дружественном союзе, каждый под своим собственным законом. На этих условиях готов он заключить мирный договор с консулами». В случае же их несогласия он запретил послам римским возвращаться к себе... ...Консулы отправились к Пойтию для переговоров. Здесь, когда победитель заговорил о торжественном заключении мира, они сказали, что без согласия народа невозможно его заключить, а равно, что мир, если бы и был заключен, не будет действителен без участия фецпалов3 и установленных обрядоз. А потому несправедливо господствующее мнение, высказанное и историком Клавдием о том, будто мы у Кавдия заключили торжественный мирный союз, а не мирный трактат на поручительстве. Будь первое, не предстояло бы нужды нн в поручительстве, ни в заложниках, и к чему они там, где все заключается в заклинании: «Которая из двух договаривающихся сторон нарушит заключаемый договор, то да поразит его Юпитер так, как фециалы поражают жертвенную свинью»? Поручились консулы, легаты, квесторы, военные трибуны; самые имена всех поручителей дошли до нас; но если бы заключен был торжественный союзный договор, то нам известны были бы только имена двух фециалов. Так как заключение торжественного мирного договора было по необходимости отложено, 34 то взяты в заложники шесть сот всадников; они должны были отвечать жизнью в случае нарушения обязательства. Назначен срок, в течение которого должны были быть выданы заложники, а римское войско отпущено безоружным. Сначала приказано было им всем в одних рубашках без оружия выйти на вал; тут были выданы заложники, уведенные под военной охраной. Потом от консулов отняты ликторы4, и военная одежда, присвоенная их положению, снята с них... Сначала консулы, полуобнаженные, проведены были под ярмом; за ними все прочие военные чины подверглись бесславию в том порядке, как они друг за другом следовали; наконец, простые воины по легионам. Неприятельские воины стояли кругом, осыпая римлян злыми насмешками и ругательствами и грозя меча-ми. Иные из наших воинов, на лицах которых ярко выражалась ненависть к врагу, были ранены и даже умерщвлены. Таким образом, все воины были проведены под ярмом на.глазах неприятеля... Перев. А. Клеванова. 1 Во второй половине IV в. римляне вели борьбу с самнитскими племенами. С 343 по 341 г. длилась первая Самнитская война. Закончилась она полной победой Рима. Пятнадцать лет спустя началась вторая Самнитская война (327-304 гг.), в которой римские войска потерпели жестокое поражение в Кавдинском ущелье (321 г). 2 Ярмо неприятельское (jugum) состояло из двух копий, воткнутых в землю, и одного, лежащего на них в качестве перекладины, под которыми заставляли проходить побежденного неприятеля в знак его покорности. 3 Фециалы - жреческие коллегии в Риме. Они принимали участие в решении вопросов международных отношений: ведения войны, заключения мира и т. д. 4 В знак власти консулов сопровождало 12 ликторов, которые несли связки прутьев, называемые фасцами. № 10. ПОКОРЕНИЕ РИМЛЯНАМИ ЮЖНОЙ ИТАЛИИ (Полибий, I, 6) Римляне заключили мир с кельтами " на условиях, предложенных последними, и сверх всякого ожидания получив обратно родной город, начали восстанавливать свои силы, а затем вести.войну с соседями. Благодаря мужеству и военному счастью, римляне покорили своей власти всех жителей Лация, потом воевали с тирренами 2, далее с кельтами, вслед за этим с самнитами, которые живут у восточных и северных границ земли латинов". Некоторое время спустя тарентинцы 3 в страхе перед римлянами, послам которых нанесли обиду, призвали на помощь Пирра 4; случилось это за год до нашествия галатов на Элладу 5, которые разбиты были под Дсльфами и переправились морем в Азию. В это-то время римляне, покоривши уже тирре- нов и самнитов, одолевши во многих сражениях италийских кельтов, впервые обратили свои силы на остальные части Ита- лки. В битвах с самнитами и кельтами они изощрились в военном деле и теперь собирались воевать за земли, большую часть которых почитали уже не чужим достоянием, а своею собственностью и своими владениями. Войну эту они вели доблестно и наконец выгнали из Италии Пирра с его войсками, потом предприняли новые войны и сокрушили союзников Пирра. Покоривши неожиданно все эти народы, подчинивши своей власти всех жителей Италии, кроме кельтов, они затем приступили к осаде Регия 6. Перев. Ф. Г. Мищенко. 1 Имеется в виду мир, который был заключен на невыгодных для римлян условиях после того, как кельты захватили и разграбили Рим. 2 Неизвестно, какие племена подразумевает Полнбнп под названием тирренов. 3 Тарентинцы - жители южнонталнйского города Тарента, колонии, выведенной Спартой. 4 Пирр - царь Эпира, с которым жители Тарента заключили договор о помощи против Рима (281 г. до н. э.). 5 Нашествие галатов на Грецию, по данным Павсания, Страбона и других авторов, имело место в 279 г. до н. э. 6 Осада Регия, города, расположенного на южной оконечности Италии, была предпринята римлянами в 270 г. до н. э. ПРЕВРАЩЕНИЕ РИМА В СИЛЬНЕЙШЕЕ ГОСУДАРСТВО СРЕДИЗЕМНОМОРЬЯ Изучению пунических войн нужно предпослать характеристику социально-экономического положения Карфагена, колонии Тира на северном берегу Африки Легенду об основании Карфагена сообщает нам Юстин [док. № 11]. Основу экономики Карфагена составляла посредническая торговля и сильно развитое сельское хозяйство, в котором широко применялся труд рабов. Важен также вопрос о политическом строе Карфагена, где господствовала олигархия [совет 30], а народное собрание не играло никакой роли в решении тех или иных вопросов - ив первую очередь в вопросах ведения войны и заключения мира. Карфаген начинает играть все большую и большую роль в торговле Средиземноморья. Античные авторы сообщают нам сведения о взаимоотношениях Карфагена с Римом, начиная с эпохи ранней республики и о договорах, которые заключались между этими двумя государствами. Например, Полибий говорит о первоначальном разграничении сфер влияния Карфагена и Рима (док. № 12). Разделение это, по Полибию, было следующим: влияние Карфагена распространялось на Сардинию, Ливню и юго-западную часть Сицилии, а римлян - на Италию (главным образом - Лациум) н остальную часть Сицилии. Подробно излагаются у Полибия последующие договори этих двух держав (док. № 12). Излагая историю пунических войн, надо исходить из указания В. И. Ленина, говорившего, что «Империалистские войны тоже бывали и на почве рабства (война Рима с Карфагеном была с обеих сторон империалистской войной)...» (В. И. Ленин, Соч., т. 26, стр. 135). Нужно особо остановиться на причинах, приведших к столкновению Двух сильнейших держав Средиземноморья. Выясняя роль Сицилии во взаимоотношениях Рима с Карфагеном следует основываться на данньх Поли- б"я (док. № 13). 37 При изложении хода военных действии надо выделить узловые моменты борьбы Рима с Карфагеном. Важно выяснить также внутриполитические последствия первой пунической войны для обеих воюющих сторон: в Карфагене имело место восстание наемников, воевавших против Рима и не получивших денег за свою службу. К ним присоединилось значительное количество рабов (во главе с рабом Матоном). Восстание это тянулось три года н представляло серьезную угрозу для Карфагена. Об этих событиях подробно рассказывается у Полибия (док. № 17). В Риме после первой пунической войны также обострились социальные движения, так, например, была проведена реформа центуриатных комиций. При изложении основных событий второй пунической войны нужно остановиться на завоеваниях Карфагена в Испании и захвате союзного Риму города Сагунта, что послужило поводом ко второй пунической войне. Относительно тактики Фабия Максима, командовавшего римскими войсками во второй пунической войне, подробное указание мы находим у Тита Ливия (док. № 19). Ливии отмечает, что позиция Фабия Максима, прозванного Кунктатором (Медлителем), осуждалась в Риме и что более оппозиционные круги обвиняли его даже в измене родине. Наряду с этим античный автор высказывает и другую точку зрения, которую, видимо, сам разделяет, а именно: что «наконец-то римляне выбрали полководцем человека, который рассчитывал в ведении войны более иа благоразумие, чем на слепое счастье». Особенно ярко тактика римского и карфагенского войска проявилась ко время решающей битвы второй пунической войны - в битве при Каннах. Ливии дает нам подробное описание ее (док. № 20). Изложив ход сражения, приведшего к поражению римлян, нужно показать, что оно послужило причиной отпадения от Рима союзных италийских городов и в первую очередь Капуи. Тит Ливии, рассказывая об этих событиях (док. № 21), говорит, что послы Кампании заключили мир с Ганнибалом и истребили всех римлян, находившихся в Капуе. Тем не менее положение Ганнибала в Италии было очень трудным, так как он перестал получать подкрепления из Карфагена. Это было использовано римлянами, высадившими в Африке свои войска. В битве при Заме карфагеняне потерпели решительное поражение. В результате победы над Карфагеном во второй пунической войне неизмеримо увеличилось значение Рима. Карфаген же после этой войны стал второстепенным государством Средиземноморья. После изучения внешнеполитических отношений Рима на западе важно остановиться и на обстановке, создавшейся в результате второй пунической войны в восточной части Средиземного моря. Египет переживал состояние экономического и политического упадка, а из всех стран восточного Средиземноморья в этот период наибольшего расцвета достигает Македония. , Царь Македонии Филипп, как сообщает Тит Ливии (док. № 22), с величайшим вниманием следил за борьбой Рима с Карфагеном и после первых побед Карфагена во второй пунической войне отправил послов, чтобы присоединиться к сильнейшему. Ливии перечисляет нам условия договора, заключенного между Карфагеном и Македонией. Последняя должна была выставить 200 судов для борьбы с Римом. Тем не менее переговоры окончились неудачно, так как послы эти были перехвачены римлянами. Тенденции Македонии к завоеваниям представляли большую угрозу для всех стран восточного Средиземноморья, которые обращаются за помощью к Риму. В ходе переговоров с эллинистическими странами нужно особенно отметить роль римской дипломатии. После характеристики обстановки, предшествовавшей войнам Рима на востоке, необходимо изложить ход войн с Сирией и Македонией и условия мирного договора с Филиппом (док. № 23). Важно проследить последовательность завоеваний Рима на востоке- первая и вторая македонская война, Сирийская война, война с Персеем и покорение Македонии, война с Ахейским союзом. 3S К середине II в. до н. э. римляне в своей внешней политике добились значительных успехов как на западе, так и на востоке. В результате победы в третьей пунической войне Карфаген был разрушен и перестал представлять собой угрозу для экономики и торговли Рима на запаче. По словам Энгельса «третью... Пуническую войну едва ли.можно назвать войной; это было простое угнетение слабейшего противника в десять раз сильнейшим противником» (К. Маркс и Ф. Энгельс, Соч., т. VIII, стр. 434). На востоке были завоеваны и превращены в римские провинции "Македония и Греция (док. № 24), которые отныне рассматриваются, как praedia populi Romani (поместья римского народа), и подвергаются тяжелой эксплуатации. Таким"образом, к середине II в. до и. э. Рим становится крупнейшим государством Средиземноморья. № П. ОСНОВАНИЕ КАРФАГЕНА (Юстин, История, XVIII, 3-5) В изложении Юстина (II в. и. э.) дошла до нас «Всемирная история» в 44 книгах, написанная уроженцем Галлии Трогом Помпеем, автором, жившим во времена Августа. Он писал, используя главным образом греческие источники и в первую очередь Теопомпа. Особенно подробно освещены были в этом труде вопросы о появлении и гибели «всемирных монархий». Когда у них [финикийцев] было изобилие богатств" и населения, они отправили молодежь в Африку и основали там город Утику. Между тем царь Мутгон в Тире умер, оставив своими наследниками сы«а Пигмалиона и дочь Элиссу, девушку выдающейся красоты. Но народ передал все царство Пигмалиону, тогда еще совсем юному. Элиоса вышла замуж за* дядю.своего Акербу, жреца Геркулеса, занимавшего второе место в государстве после царя. У него были огромные, но скрываемые им богатства; боясь царя, он свое золото хранил не в доме, а в земле; хотя люди этого и не знали, но ходила об этом молва. Раздраженный ею, Пигмалион, забыв.все человеческие и божеские законы, убил своего дядю и вместе с тем зятя, Элиоса долго сторонилась брата после этого убийства и подконец стала обдумывать бегство, взяв себе в союзники несколько знатных тирийцев, у которых была, по ее мнению, такая же ненависть к царю и такое же желание от него уехать... К ним присоединились подготовившиеся к бегству группы сенаторов. Захватив сокровища из храма Геркулеса, .где Акерба был жрецом, они изгнанниками пустились на поиски места для поселения. Первую высадку они сделали на острове Кипре. Там жрец Юпитера с женой и детьми, по внушению бога, присоединился к Элисее и разделил с нею ее судьбу, выговорив себе и своем v потомству наследственную жреческую должность... Элиоса, высадившись в заливе Африки, вступила в дружеские отношения с местными жителями, обрадовавшимися прибытию чужеземцев п установлению торговых связей с ними. Затем, купив столько земли, сколько можно покрыть кожей быка, чтобы дать отдых спутникам, утомленным продолжительным плаванием, пока они 39 туда добирались, она приказала разрезать кожу на тончайшие полоски и таким образом заняла больше места, чем сколько просила, поэтому впоследствии этому месту дали название Бирсы ". Когда сюда стали стекаться жители соседних земель и, рассчитывая получить барыш, привозить много товара на про- , дажу, они стали строить здесь для себя жилища, и от многолюдства их образовалось нечто вроде города. Так же и послы из Утики принесли дары своим соотечественникам и убедили их основать город на том месте, которое им досталось по жребию. Со своей стороны и жители Африки хотели задержать у себя новых пришельцев. Таким образом с общего согласия был основан Карфаген, причем была установлена годовая плата за землю, на которой возник город. При первой закладке в земле найдена была бычья голова, что предвещало, что земля будет плодородна, но потребует много труда и что город (будет в постоянном рабстве. Тогда да-за этого город был перенесен на другое место. Там найдена была лошадиная голова, что означало, что народ будет воинственный и могущественный. Это обстоятельство и определило благоприятное место для закладки города. Тогда в силу такого представления о новом городе сюда стало стекаться множество народа, и в скором времени город стал большим и многонаселенным. Перев. В. С. Соколова. 1 Что по-гречески означает «содранная шкура». № 12. ДОГОВОРЫ РИМЛЯН С КАРФАГЕНОМ ДО НАЧАЛА ПУНИЧЕСКИХ ВОЙН (Полибий, III, 22-25) Первый договор между римлянами и карфагенянами " был заключен при Люции Юнии Бруте и Марке Горации, первых консулах после упразднения царской власти, при тех самых, которыми освещен был храм Зевса Капитолийского, т. е. за двадцать восемь лет до вторжения Ксеркса в Элладу. Мы сообщаем его в переводе", сделанном с возможною точностью, ибо "и у римлян нынешний язык настолько отличается от древнего, что некоторые выражения договора могут быть поняты с трудом лишь весьма сведущими и внимательными читателями. Содержание договора приблизительно следующее: «Быть дружбе между римлянами с союзниками и карфагенянами с союзниками на нижеследующих условиях: римлянам и союзникам римлян возбраняется плыть дальше Прекрасного мыса2, разве к тому они будут вынуждены бурею или неприятелями. Если кто-нибудь занесен будет против желания, ему не дозволяется ни покупать что-либо, ни брать сверх того, что требуется для починки судна или для жертвы. В пятидневный срок он обязан удалиться. Явившиеся по торго- J0 еым делам не могут совершить никакой сделки иначе, как при посредстве глашатая или писца. За все то, что в присутствии этих свидетелей ни было бы продано в Ливии или в Сардинии, ручается перед продавцом государство. Если бы кто из римлян явился в подвластную карфагенянам Сицилию, то во всем он пользовался бы одинаковыми правами с карфагенянами. С другой стороны, карфагенянам возбраняется обижать народ ардеа- тов, анциатов, ларентинов, цирцеитов, таррацинитов3 и всякий иной латинский народ, подчиненный римлянам. Если какой-либо народ и не подчинен римлянам, карфагенянам возбраняется нападать на их города; а если бы какой город они взяли, то обязуются возвратить его в целости римлянам. Карфагенянам возбраняется сооружать укрепления в Ланий, и если бы они вторглись в страну как неприятели, им возбраняется проводить там ночь». Карфагеняне находили нужным воспретить римлянам плавание на длинных кораблях дальше Прекрасного мыса с целью, как мне кажется, воспрепятствовать ознакомлению римлян с местностями Биссатиды и Малого Сирта 4, которые называются у них эмпориями5 и отличаются высокими достоинствами. Если бы кто занесен был туда против желания бурей или [загнан] неприятелем и нуждался бы в чем-либо необходимом для жертвы или для поправки судна, карфагеняне дозволяют взять это, но ничего больше и притом требуют непременного удаления приставших сюда в пятидневный срок. По торговым делам римлянам дозволяется приезжать в Карфаген и во всякий другой город Ливии по сю сторону Прекрасного мыса, а также в Сардинию и подчиненную карфагенянам часть Сицилии, причем карфагеняне обещают от имени государства обеспечить каждому это право. Из договора явствует, что карфагеняне говорят о Сардинии и Ливии, как о собственных владениях; напротив, относительно Сицилии они ясно отличают только ту часть ее, которая находится во власти карфагенян, и договариваются только о ней. Равным образом и римляне заключают договор только относительно Лация, не упоминая об остальной Италии, так как она не была тогда в их власти... После этого договора они заключили другой 6, в который карфагеняне включили тирян и народ Утики. К Прекрасному мысу прибавляются теперь Мастия и Тарсена7, и они требуют, чтобы дальше этих пунктов римляне не ходили за добычей и не основывали города. Вот каково приблизительно содержание договора: «Быть дружбе между римлянами с союзниками и карфагенянами, тирянами, народом Утики с союзниками на следующих условиях: римлянам возбраняется плавать поту сторону Прекрасного мыса, Мастии и Тарсена как за добычей, так и для торговли и основания города. Если бы карфагеняне овладели в Лации каким-либо городом, независимым от римлян, то они могут взять деньги и пленных, а самый город обязаны возвра- 41 тпть. Если бы какие-либо карфагеняне взяли в плен кого-либо из народа, который заключил с римлянами писаный договор, но не находящегося под властью римлян, карфагенянам возбраняется привозить пленных в римские гавани; если же таковой будет доставлен туда и римлянин наложит на него руку, то < пленный отпускается на свободу. То же самое возбраняется и римлянам. Если римлянин в стране, подвластной карфагеняна.м возьмет воды или съестных припасов, ему возбраняется с этими съестными припасами обижать какой-либо народ, связанный с карфагенянами договором и дружбою. То же самое возбраняется и карфагенянам. Если же случится что-нибудь подобное, обиженному запрещается мстить за себя; в противном случае деяние его будет считаться государственным преступлением. В Сардинии и Лидии никому из римлян не дозволяется ни торговать, ни основывать городов, ни приставать где-либо, разве для того только, чтобы запастись продовольствием или починить судно. Если римлянин будет занесен бурей, то обязан удалиться в пятидневный срок. В той части Сицилии, которая подвластна карфагенянам, а также в Карфагене, римлянину наравне с гражданином предоставляется совершать продажу и всякие сделки. То же самое предоставляется и карфагенянину в Риме». В этом договоре карфагеняне еще более определенно заявляют право собственности на Ливию и Сардинию и запрещают римлянам всякий доступ к ним; напротив, относительно Сицилии они определенно называют только подвластную им часть ее. Точно так же выражаются римляне о Лации, обязывая карфагенян не причинять обид ардеатам, анциатам, цирцеитам и тарра- цийитам. Это те города, которые лежат при море на границе латинской земли, в отношении которой и заключается договор. ...Последний договор до войны карфагенян за Сицилию римляне заключили во время переправы Пирра в Италию8. В нем подтверждается все то, что было в прежних договорах, и прибавляются следующие условия: «Если бы римляне или карфагеняне пожелали заключить письменный договор с Пирром, то оба народа обязаны выговорить себе разрешение помогать друг другу в случае вторжения неприятеля, какая бы из двух стран ни подверглась нападению. Тот или другой народ нуждался бы в помощи, карфагеняне обязаны доставить суда грузовые и военные, но жалованье, своим воинам каждая сторона обязана уплачивать сама. Карфагеняне обязуются помогать римлянам и на море в случае нужды; но никто не вправе понуждать команд}" к высадке на сушу, раз она того не желает». Что касается клятвы, то она должна была быть такого рода: первые догоЕоры карфагеняне утвердили клятвою во имя отеческих богов, а римляне, согласно древнему обычаю, во имя Юпитера Камня 9, последний же договор именем Марса Эниа- лия10. Клятва Юпитером Камнем состоит приблизительно в следующем: утверждающий клятвою договор берет в руку камень 42 и, поклявшись от имени государства, произносит такие слова: «Да будут милостивы ко мне боги, "если я соблюду клятву; если же помыслю или учиню что-либо противное клятве, пускай все люди невредимо пребывают на собственной родине, при собственных законах, при собственных достатках, святынях, гробницах, один я да буду повергнут, как этот камень». При этих словах произносящий клятву кидает камень. Перев. Ф. Г. Мищенко. 1 О первом договоре римлян с карфа!енянами мы находим сведения только у Полибия, который относит его к 508 г. до н. э. Это свидетельство не может считаться в полной мере достоверным, тем более что дальше По- либий допускает фактическую ошибку - первыми консулами по традиции были Люций Юний Брут и Люций Тарквнний Коллатин, а не Марк Гораций. 2 Прекрасный мыс находился недалеко от Карфагена, по направлению на север. 3 Имеются в виду жители городов Лация: Ардеи, Анция, Лаврента, Цирцей, Таррацины. 4 Биссатида и Малый Сирт - местности на северном побережье Африки, обладающие удобными гаванями. 5 Эмпорий - по-гречески торговый пункт. 6 Есть основание предполагать, что об этом же договоре мы находим упоминание у Ливия, датируется он 348 г. до и. э. 7 Города Мастия и Тарсена находятся в южной Испании, недалеко от так называемых «Геракловых столбов». 6 Имеется в виду договор 279 г. до н. э. 9 Римляне клялись именем Камня Юпитера, считая его символом божества. 10 Эниалий - первоначально эпитет Марса, бога войны, позднее - самостоятельное божество, именем которого клялись римляне. № 13. ПРИЧИНЫ ПЕРВОЙ ПУНИЧЕСКОЙ ВОЙНЫ (Полиб"Ий, 1, 10-11) Мамертины" ...прежде уже потеряли помощь Регия; теперь... и собственные силы их были сокрушены вконец2. Поэтому одни из них, найдя убежища у карфагенян, передались им сами, передали и город; другая часть мамертинов отправила посольство к римлянам с предложением принять их город и с просьбою помочь им, как родственным с ними,по крови. Римляне долго колебались, что предпринять, так как помощь мамертинам была бы явною непоследовательностью. Еще так недавно римляне казнили жесточайшею казнью собственных граждан за то, что они нарушили уговор с региянамп, и тут же помогать мамертинам, почти в том же виноватым не только перед мессенцами, но и перед городом региян, было бы непростительною несправедливостью. Все это римляне понимали; но они видели также, что карфагеняне покорили не только Ливию, но и большую часть Иберии, что господство их простирается на все острова Сардинского и Тирренского морей, и сильно боялись, как бы не приобрести в карфагенянах, в случае покорения ими Сицилии, опас- 43 пых и страшных соседей, которые окружат их кольцом и будут угрожать всей Италии. Было совершенно ясно, что, если римляне откажут в помощи мамертинам, карфагеняне быстро овладеют Сицилией. Имея
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
VORONEZH STATE
PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY
READING ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD (Part 2. History of antiquity)
correspondence department
Voronezh 2011
Anthology on the history of the ancient world. (Part 2. History of Antiquity) - Voronezh: Voronezh State University Publishing House, 2007. - p.
Compilers - Ph.D. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor, VSPU
cand. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor, VSPU
Reviewer
Topic 1. SOCIETY AND THE STATE OF SPARTA
1. Characteristics of sources.
2. The emergence of the Spartan state.
3. Dependent population of ancient Sparta.
4. “Community of equals”:
1) its organization, the role of regulation;
2) main occupations, life;
3) family relations;
4) upbringing and education of the Spartans.
5. The political system of ancient Sparta.
Sources and literature
Workshop on the history of the ancient world. Issue. 2. Ancient Greece and Rome / Ed. . M. 1981. Topic 2.
Aristotle. Politics, II, VI // Aristotle. Op. in 4 volumes. T.4. M., 1984. S.428-434.
Plutarch. Lycurgus // Comparative biographies. M., 1961. T.1. S.53-77.
To the problem of “Lycurgus legislation” // Problems of ancient statehood. L., 1952. S. 33-59.
Andreev “horsemen” // VDI. 1969. No. 4. S.24-36.
Andreev as a type of policy // Ancient Greece. T.1. Formation and development of the policy. M., 1983. S.194-216.
Andreev Sparta: culture and politics // VDI. 1987. No. 4. pp. 70-86.
Andreev gynecocracy // Woman in the ancient world. M., 1995. S.44-62.
Dyakonov, helots and serfs in early antiquity // VDI. 1973. No. 4. WITH.
Zhurakovsky on the history of ancient pedagogy. M., 1963.
From new works on helotia and similar forms of dependence // VDI. 1961. No. 2. pp.138-142.
Kolobov Sparta (X - VI centuries BC). L., 1957.
Pechatnova Sparta: the period of archaic and classic. SPb.: Humanitarian Academy. 2001. - 600s. (http://centant.*****/centrum/publik/books/pechatnova/001.htm)
Strogetsky conflict between the ephorate and royal power in Sparta // Antique polis. L., 1979. S.42-57.
The text is given according to the edition: Plutarch. Comparative biographies in two volumes, M .: Nauka Publishing House, 1994. Second edition, corrected and enlarged. T.I.
Translation, translation processing for this reissue, notes.
1. It is impossible to report anything strictly reliable about the legislator Lycurgus: both about his origin, and about travels, and about death, as well as about his laws, and about the structure that he gave to the state, there are the most contradictory stories. But most of all, information about the time when he lived ...
2. Of the ancestors of Lycurgus, Soy gained the greatest fame, during whose reign the Spartans enslaved the helots and took away a lot of land from the Arcadians ... Eurypont was the first to weaken the one-man command of royal power, currying favor with the crowd and pleasing her. As a result of these indulgences, the people became bolder, and the kings who ruled after Eurypont either aroused the hatred of their subjects by drastic measures, or, seeking their favor or out of their own impotence, bowed down before them, so that lawlessness and disorganization took possession of Sparta for a long time. From them happened to die and the king, the father of Lycurgus ...
4. Having set out on his journey, Lycurgus first visited Crete. He studied the state structure, became close to the most famous of the Cretans, and approved and adopted some of the local laws, in order to plant them in his homeland ... The Egyptians claim that Lycurgus visited them and, warmly praising the isolation of the soldiers from all other groups of the population, transferred this order to Sparta, separated the artisans and craftsmen and created a model of the state, truly beautiful and pure ...
5. The Lacedaemonians yearned for Lycurgus and repeatedly invited him to return, saying that the only difference between their current kings and the people is the title and honors that are given to them, while in him the nature of the leader and mentor is visible, some kind of power that allows him to lead of people. The kings themselves also looked forward to his return, hoping that in his presence the crowd would treat them more respectfully. The Spartans were in such a state of mind when Lycurgus arrived back and immediately began to change and transform the entire state system. He was convinced that separate laws would not bring any benefit if, as if healing a sick body suffering from all kinds of ailments, with the help of cleansing agents, the bad mixture of juices was not destroyed and a new, completely different way of life was not prescribed. With this thought, he first went to Delphi. Having made sacrifices to the god and questioned the oracle, he returned, carrying that famous saying in which the Pythia called him "god-loving", more a god than a man; to a request for good laws, the answer was received that the deity promises to give the Spartans orders incomparably better than in other states. Encouraged by the pronouncements of the oracle, Lycurgus decided to involve the best citizens in the execution of his plan and conducted secret negotiations, first with friends, gradually capturing an ever wider circle and rallying everyone for the cause he had conceived ...
Of the numerous innovations of Lycurgus, the Council of Elders was the first and most important. In conjunction with ... the royal power, having an equal right to vote with it in deciding the most important matters, this Council became a guarantee of well-being and prudence. The state, which rushed from side to side, leaning now to tyranny, when the kings won, then to full democracy, when the crowd took over, placing in the middle, like ballast in the hold of a ship, the power of the elders, found balance, stability and order: twenty-eight the elders now constantly supported the kings, resisting democracy, but at the same time helping the people to keep the fatherland from tyranny. Aristotle explains this number by the fact that before Lycurgus had thirty supporters, but two, frightened, withdrew from participation in the case. Sfer says that from the very beginning there were twenty-eight ...
6. Lycurgus attached so much importance to the power of the Council that he brought from Delphi a special prophecy on this subject, which is called "retra". It reads: “Establish a temple of Zeus of Sillania and Athena of Sillania. Divided into phyla and oby. Establish thirty elders with leaders collectively. From time to time to convene an Assembly between Babika and Knakion, and there propose and dissolve, but let the dominance and power belong to the people. The order to "divide" refers to the people, and the phyla and oby are the names of the parts and groups into which it should be divided. By "leaders" is meant kings. ... Aristotle claims that Knakion is a river, and Babika is a bridge. Meetings took place between them, although there was neither a portico nor any other shelters in that place: according to Lycurgus, nothing like this contributes to soundness of judgment, on the contrary, it causes only harm, occupying the minds of the audience with trifles and nonsense, scattering their attention for, instead of doing business, they look at statues, paintings, the proscenium of the theater, or the ceiling of the Council, which is too magnificently decorated. No ordinary citizen was allowed to give his opinion, and the people, converging, only approved or rejected what the elders and kings would propose. But subsequently, the crowd of various kinds of withdrawals and additions began to distort and mutilate the approved decisions, and then the kings Polydorus and Theopompus made the following addition to the retra: “If the people decide incorrectly, the elders and kings should be dismissed,” that is, the decision not to be considered accepted, but to leave and dissolve the people on the grounds that it perverts and twists the best and most useful. 7. So, Lycurgus gave the government a mixed character, but his successors, seeing that the oligarchy is still too strong .., throw on it, like a bridle, the power of ephors-guardians - about one hundred and thirty years after Lycurgus, under King Theopompus. Elath and his companions were the first ephors.
8. The second and most daring of the transformations of Lycurgus is the redistribution of the land. Since terrible inequality prevailed, crowds of the poor and needy burdened the city, and all wealth passed into the hands of a few, Lycurgus, in order to expel impudence, envy, malice, luxury and even older, even more formidable ailments of the state - wealth and poverty, persuaded the Spartans to unite all lands, and then divide them again and continue to maintain property equality, while looking for superiority in valor, for there is no other difference between people, no other primacy than that established by censure of the shameful and praise of the beautiful. Moving from words to deeds, he divided Laconia between the perieks, or, in other words, the inhabitants of the surrounding areas, into thirty thousand plots, and the lands belonging to the city of Sparta itself into nine thousand, according to the number of Spartiate families ... Each allotment was of such a size to bring forth seventy medimns of barley per man and twelve per woman, and a commensurate amount of liquid foods. Lycurgus believed that this would be sufficient for such a lifestyle that would keep his fellow citizens strong and healthy, while they should not have other needs ...
9. Then he undertook the division of movable property in order to completely destroy all inequality, but, realizing that the open seizure of property would cause sharp discontent, he overcame greed and greed by indirect means. Firstly, he put out of use all gold and silver coins, leaving only iron coins in circulation, and even that, with its enormous weight and size, assigned an insignificant value, so that a large warehouse was required to store an amount equal to ten mines, and for transportation - pair harness. As the new coin spread, many types of crime in Lacedaemon disappeared. Who, in fact, could have the desire to steal, take bribes or rob, since it was unthinkable to hide the uncleanly acquired, and it did not represent anything enviable, and even broken into pieces did not receive any use? After all, Lycurgus, as they say, ordered the iron to be tempered by dipping it in vinegar, and this deprived the metal of its strength, it became brittle and no longer good for anything, because it was no longer amenable to any further processing.
Then Lycurgus expelled useless and superfluous crafts from Sparta. However, most of them, without that, would have retired after the generally accepted coin, not finding a market for their products. It was pointless to carry iron money to other Greek cities - they did not have the slightest value there, and they only made fun of them - so that the Spartans could not buy anything from foreign trifles, and in general merchant cargo stopped coming to their harbors. Within the borders of Laconia, neither a skilled speaker, nor a wandering charlatan-soothsayer, nor a procurer, nor a gold or silversmith now appeared - after all, there was no more coin there! But because of this, luxury, gradually deprived of everything that supported and nourished it, withered and disappeared by itself. Wealthy citizens lost all their advantages, since wealth was closed to the people, and it was hiding locked up in their homes without any business. For the same reason, ordinary and necessary utensils - a bed, chairs, tables - were made by the Spartans like nowhere else, and the Laconian coton was considered, according to Critias, indispensable in campaigns: if you had to drink water that was unsightly in appearance, it hid the color of the liquid with its color, and since the turbidity lingered inside, settling on the inside of the convex walls, the water reached the lips already somewhat purified. And here the merit belongs to the legislator, for the artisans, forced to abandon the production of useless objects, began to invest all their skill in the essentials.
10. In order to inflict luxury and passion for wealth even more decisively, Lycurgus carried out the third and most beautiful transformation - he established common meals: citizens gathered together and all ate the same dishes deliberately set for these meals ... This, of course, is extremely important , but more importantly, thanks to the common food and its simplicity, wealth, as Theophrastus says, ceased to be enviable, ceased to be wealth. It was impossible to take advantage of the luxurious decoration, or enjoy it, or even put it on display and at least amuse one’s vanity, since the rich man went to the same meal with the poor ... after a friend, and if they found a person who does not eat or drink with the rest, they blamed him, calling him unbridled and pampered.
12. Common meals are called by the Cretans "andries", and by the Lacedaemonians "phiditia" - either because friendship and benevolence reigned at them, or because they taught simplicity and thrift. Likewise, nothing prevents us from assuming, following the example of some, that the first sound here is attached and that the word "edity" should be derived from the word "food" or "food".
Fifteen people gathered for meals, sometimes a little less or more. Each companion brought monthly medimn of barley flour, eight hoi of wine, five minas of cheese, two and a half minas of figs, and, finally, a very insignificant amount of money for the purchase of meat and fish. If one of them made a sacrifice or hunted, a part of the sacrificial animal or prey came for the common table, but not all of it, for those who lingered on the hunt or because of the sacrifice could dine at home, while the rest had to be present. The Spartans strictly observed the custom of joint meals until late times. When King Agidas, having defeated the Athenians, returned from the campaign and, wanting to dine with his wife, sent for his unit, the polemarchs refused to give her up. The next day, in anger, the king did not offer the prescribed sacrifice, and the polemarchs imposed a fine on him.
There were also children at the meals. They were brought there as if to a school of common sense, where they listened to conversations about state affairs, witnessed the amusements worthy of a free man, learned to joke and laugh without vulgar antics, and to meet jokes without offense. To calmly endure ridicule was considered one of the main virtues of a Spartan. Anyone who became unbearable could ask for mercy, and the mocker immediately fell silent. To each of those who entered, the elder at the table said, pointing to the door: "Speeches do not go beyond the threshold." They say that whoever wanted to become a participant in the meal was subjected to the following test. Each of the companions took a piece of bread crumb in his hand and, like a pebble for voting, silently threw it into a vessel, which was brought up, holding on his head, by a servant. As a sign of approval, the lump was simply lowered, and whoever wanted to express his disagreement, he first strongly squeezed the crumb in his fist. And if at least one such lump was found, corresponding to a drilled pebble, the seeker was refused admission, wishing that everyone sitting at the table would find pleasure in each other's company ... Of the Spartan dishes, the most famous is black stew. The old people even refused their share of meat and gave it to the young, while they themselves ate plenty of stew. There is a story that one of the Pontic kings bought himself a Laconian cook just for the sake of this stew, but after tasting it, he turned away in disgust, and then the cook told him: “The king, in order to eat this stew, you must first bathe in Evrota.” Then, moderately drinking dinner with wine, the Spartans went home without lighting lamps: they were forbidden to walk with fire, both in this case and in general, so that they would learn to move confidently and fearlessly in the darkness of the night. Such was the arrangement of common meals.
13. Lycurgus did not begin to write down his laws, and this is what is said about this in one of the so-called retros ... So, one of the retros, as already mentioned, said that written laws were not needed. Another, again directed against luxury, demanded that in every house the roof should be made with only an ax, and the doors with only a saw, without the use of at least one more tool ... There is no person so tasteless and reckless that in the house , crafted simply and crudely, to bring in a bed with silver legs, purple covers, golden goblets and a companion of all this is a luxury. Willy-nilly, one has to adjust and adapt the bed to the house, the bed to the bed, other furnishings and utensils to the bed ...
14. Starting education, in which he saw the most important and most beautiful work of the legislator, from afar, Lycurgus first turned to the issues of marriage and the birth of children. ... He strengthened and tempered the girls with exercises in running, wrestling, throwing a discus and a spear, so that the fetus in a healthy body develops healthy from the very beginning, and the women themselves, giving birth, simply and easily cope with the pain. Having made the girls forget about effeminacy, pampering and all sorts of female whims, he taught them no worse than young men to take part naked in solemn processions, to dance and sing during the performance of certain sacred rites in front of young people. It happened to them both to let go of witticisms, aptly condemning faults, and to give praise to the worthy in songs, awakening jealous ambition in young men. Whoever received praise for valor and gained fame among the girls retired rejoicing, and barbs, even playful and witty, stung no less painfully than strict suggestions: after all, kings and elders came to look at this spectacle along with the rest of the citizens. At the same time, the nudity of the girls did not contain anything bad, for they retained bashfulness and did not know licentiousness, on the contrary, she taught them to be simple, to take care of the health and strength of the body, and women assimilated a noble way of thinking, knowing that they were also able to join in honor and honor...
15. All this in itself was also a means of inducing marriage - I mean the processions of girls, the exposure of the body, competitions in the presence of young people ... At the same time, Lycurgus established a kind of shameful punishment for bachelors: they were not allowed to hymnopedia, in winter, by order of the authorities, they had to walk naked around the square, singing a song composed by them in reproach (the song said that they suffer fair retribution for disobeying the laws), and, finally, they were deprived of those honors and respect, what young people showed to the elders .. Brides were taken away, but not too young, not yet of marriageable age, but blooming and ripe. ... Having introduced such order, such shame and restraint into marriages, Lycurgus with no less success expelled the empty, womanish feeling of jealousy: he considered it reasonable and correct that, having cleansed the marriage of all unbridledness, the Spartans granted the right to every worthy citizen to enter into relations with women for the sake of creation of offspring, and taught fellow citizens to laugh at those who avenge such actions by murder and war, seeing in marriage property that does not tolerate either separation or complicity ... These orders, established in accordance with the nature and needs of the state, were so far from so-called "accessibility", which subsequently prevailed among Spartan women, that adultery seemed generally unthinkable ...
16. The father was not in the right to manage the upbringing of the child himself - he took the newborn to a place called "forest", where the oldest relatives in the fillet were sitting. They examined the child and, if they found him strong and well-built, they ordered him to be brought up, immediately assigning him one of nine thousand allotments. If the child was frail and ugly, he was sent to Apothetes (the so-called cliff on Taiget), believing that his life was not needed either by himself or by the state, since he was denied health and strength from the very beginning. For the same reason, women washed their newborns not with water, but with wine, testing their qualities: they say that those who are sick with epilepsy and generally sick die from unmixed wine, while healthy ones become tempered and become even stronger. The nurses were caring and skillful, the children were not swaddled to give freedom to the members of the body, they were raised unpretentious and not picky about food, not afraid of the dark or loneliness, not knowing what self-will and crying are. Therefore, sometimes even strangers bought nurses from Laconia ... Meanwhile, Lycurgus forbade giving Spartan children to the care of educators bought for money or hired for a fee, and the father could not raise his son as he pleases.
As soon as the boys reached the age of seven, Lycurgus took them away from their parents and divided them into detachments so that they lived and ate together, learning to play and work next to each other. At the head of the detachment, he put the one who surpassed the others in quick wits and was the bravest in fights. The rest looked up to him, obeyed his orders and silently endured punishment, so that the main consequence of this lifestyle was the habit of obedience. Old men often looked after the games of children and constantly quarreled them, trying to cause a fight, and then they carefully observed what qualities each one had by nature - whether the boy was brave and whether he was stubborn in fights. They learned literacy only to the extent that it was impossible to do without it, but otherwise all education was reduced to the requirements to obey unquestioningly, endure hardships and prevail over the enemy. With age, the requirements became more and more stringent: the children were cut short, they ran barefoot, they learned to play naked. At the age of twelve, they were already walking around without a chiton, receiving a himation once a year, dirty, neglected; baths and ointments were unfamiliar to them - for the whole year they used this blessing for only a few days. They slept together, in silts and detachments, on beddings that they prepared for themselves, breaking with their bare hands the reed panicles on the bank of the Eurotas...
17 .... Old people ... attend gymnasiums, are present at competitions and verbal skirmishes, and this is not for fun, because everyone considers himself to some extent the father, educator and leader of any of the teenagers, so there was always someone to reason with and punish the delinquent. Nevertheless, from among the most worthy husbands, a pedon is also appointed - supervising the children, and at the head of each detachment the teenagers themselves put one of the so-called irens - always the most reasonable and brave. (Irenes are those who have matured for the second year, Mellirens are the oldest boys.) Irene, who has reached twenty years of age, commands his subordinates in fights and disposes of them when it comes time to take care of dinner. He orders the big ones to bring firewood, the little ones - vegetables. Everything is obtained by theft: some go to the gardens, others with the greatest caution, using all their cunning, make their way to the common meals of their husbands. If the boy was caught, he was severely beaten with a whip for negligent and awkward theft. They also stole any other provisions that came to hand, learning how to deftly attack sleeping or gaping guards. The punishment for those who got caught was not only beatings, but also hunger: the children were fed very poorly, so that, enduring hardships, they themselves, willy-nilly, became adept at insolence and cunning ...
18. When stealing, the children observed the greatest caution; one of them, as they say, having stolen a fox, hid it under his cloak, and although the animal tore his stomach with claws and teeth, the boy, in order to hide his deed, was fastened until he died. The reliability of this story can be judged by the current ephebes: I myself saw how not one of them died under blows at the altar of Orthia ... Often, Iren punished the boys in the presence of old people and authorities, so that they would be convinced how justified and fair his actions were. During the punishment he was not stopped, but when the children dispersed, he held the answer if the punishment was stricter or, on the contrary, softer than it should have been.
19. Children were taught to speak in such a way that in their words caustic wit was mixed with grace, so that short speeches evoked lengthy reflections ...
21. Singing and music were taught with no less care than the clarity and purity of speech, but even in the songs there was a kind of sting that aroused courage and compelled the soul to enthusiastic impulses to action. Their words were simple and unsophisticated, the subject - majestic and didactic. These were mainly glorifications of the happy fate of those who fell for Sparta and reproaches to cowards doomed to drag out life in insignificance, promises to prove their courage or, depending on the age of the singers, boasting of it ...
24. The upbringing of a Spartan continued into his mature years. No one was allowed to live the way he wanted: as if in a military camp, everyone in the city obeyed the strictly established rules and did what was assigned to them from the affairs useful to the state. Considering themselves belonging not to themselves, but to the fatherland, the Spartans, if they had no other assignments, either watched the children and taught them something useful, or themselves learned from the old people. After all, one of the benefits and advantages that Lycurgus brought to his fellow citizens was the abundance of leisure. They were strictly forbidden to engage in craft, and in the pursuit of profit, which required endless labor and trouble, there was no need, since wealth had lost all its value and attractive power. The helots cultivated their land, paying the appointed tax. One Spartan, being in Athens and having heard that someone was condemned for idleness and the condemned returned in deep despondency, accompanied by friends, also saddened and distressed, asked those around him to show him a man to whom freedom was imputed as a crime. That's how low and slavish they considered all manual labor, all sorts of worries associated with profit! As was to be expected, litigation disappeared along with the coin; and need and excessive abundance left Sparta, their place was taken by the equality of prosperity and the serenity of complete simplicity of morals. The Spartans devoted all their free time from military service to round dances, feasts and festivities, hunting, gymnasiums and forests.
25. Those who were younger than thirty did not go to the market at all and made the necessary purchases through relatives ... However, it was considered shameful for older people to constantly push around in the market, and not spend most of the day in gymnasiums and forestries. Gathering there, they talked decorously, not mentioning either profit or trade in a word - the hours flowed in praise of worthy deeds and censures of bad ones, praises combined with jokes and ridicule, which inconspicuously exhorted and corrected ... In a word, he accustomed his fellow citizens to so that they did not want and did not know how to live apart, but, like bees, were in an indissoluble bond with society, all were closely united around their leader and wholly belonged to the fatherland, almost completely forgetting about themselves in a fit of inspiration and love for glory …
26. As already mentioned, Lycurgus appointed the first elders from among those who took part in his plan. Then he decided to replace the dead every time to choose from citizens who have reached sixty years of age, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant. There was probably no greater competition in the world and no victory more desirable! And it’s true, because it was not about who is the most agile among the agile or the strongest among the strong, but about who among the kind and wise is the wisest and best, who, as a reward for virtue, will receive the supreme one until the end of his days - if here this word is applicable, - power in the state, will be master over life, honor, in short, over all the highest blessings. The decision was made as follows. When the people gathered, the special elected ones closed themselves in the house next door, so that no one could see them, and they themselves could not see what was happening outside, but would only hear the voices of those assembled. The people in this case, as in all others, decided the matter by shouting. Applicants were not introduced all at once, but in turn, in accordance with the lot, and they silently passed through the Assembly. Those who were locked up had signs on which they noted the strength of the scream, not knowing to whom they were shouting, but only concluding that the first, second, third, in general, the next applicant had come out. The chosen one was declared the one to whom they shouted more and louder than others ...
27. No less remarkable were the laws concerning burial. Firstly, having put an end to all kinds of superstition, Lycurgus did not interfere with burying the dead in the city itself and placing tombstones near temples, so that young people, getting used to their appearance, would not be afraid of death and would not consider themselves defiled by touching a dead body or stepping over a grave. Then he forbade anything to be buried with the deceased: the body was to be interred wrapped in a purple cloak and entwined with olive green. It was forbidden to inscribe the name of the deceased on the gravestone; Lycurgus made an exception only for the fallen in the war and for the priestesses ...
For the same reason, he did not allow to travel outside the country and travel, fearing that foreign customs would not be brought to Lacedaemon, they would not begin to imitate someone else's, disorderly life and a different form of government. Moreover, he drove out those who flocked to Sparta without any need or definite purpose - not, as Thucydides claims, that he was afraid that they would adopt the system he had established and learn valor, but rather, fearing how if these people themselves did not turn into teachers of vice. After all, along with strangers, other people's speeches invariably appear, and new speeches lead to new judgments, from which many feelings and desires are inevitably born, as opposed to the existing state system as wrong sounds are to a well-coordinated song. Therefore, Lycurgus considered it necessary to guard the city more vigilantly from bad morals than from an infection that could be brought from outside.
28. In all this there is not a trace of injustice, for which some blame the laws of Lycurgus, believing that they instruct quite enough in courage, but too little in justice. And only the so-called cryptia, if only she, as Aristotle claims, is a Lycurgus innovation, could inspire some, including Plato, with a similar judgment about the Spartan state and its legislator. That's how cryptos happened. From time to time, the authorities sent young people who were considered the most intelligent to roam the neighborhood, providing them with only short swords and the most necessary food supply. During the day they rested, hiding in secluded corners, and at night, leaving their shelters, they killed all the helots they captured on the roads. Often they went around the fields, killing the strongest and strongest helots. Thucydides in the Peloponnesian War tells that the Spartans chose helots who distinguished themselves by their special courage, and those with wreaths on their heads, as if preparing to gain freedom, visited temple after temple, but a little later they all disappeared - and there were more than two thousand of them - and neither then nor afterwards could anyone say how they died. Aristotle specifically dwells on the fact that the ephors, taking power, first of all declared war on the helots in order to legitimize the murder of the latter. In general, the Spartans treated them rudely and cruelly. They forced the helots to drink unmixed wine, and then brought them to common meals to show the youth what intoxication is. They were ordered to sing lousy songs and dance ridiculous dances, forbidding the entertainments befitting a free man ... So, the one who says that in Lacedaemon the free man is completely free, and the slave is completely enslaved, quite rightly defined the current state of affairs. But, in my opinion, all these strictness appeared among the Spartans only later, namely, after a great earthquake, when, as they say, the helots, having come out together with the Messenians, terribly outraged throughout Laconia and almost destroyed the state.
Xenophon
State of the Lacedaemonians, 5-7; 8-10
... Having caught the Spartans in an order in which they, like all other Greeks, dined each in their own house, Lycurgus saw in this circumstance the reason for very many frivolous acts. Lycurgus made public their comradely dinners in the expectation that this would most likely eliminate the possibility of disobeying orders. He allowed the citizens to consume food in such quantity that they would not be overly satiated, but also not suffer a shortage; however, game is often served, as an addition, and rich people sometimes bring wheat bread; thus, while the Spartans live together in tents, their table never suffers from a lack of food, nor from excessive cost. It is the same with drinking: having stopped excessive drinking, relaxing the body, relaxing the mind, Lycurgus allowed everyone to drink only to satisfy thirst, believing that drinking under such conditions would be both harmless and most pleasant. At common dinners, how could anyone cause serious damage to himself and his household by delicacy of food or drunkenness? In all other states, peers are, for the most part, together and are least embarrassed by each other; Lycurgus, in Sparta, connected the ages so that young people were brought up mainly under the guidance of the experience of the elders. It is customary to talk about the deeds committed by someone in the state in phiditias; therefore, there is almost no place for arrogance, drunken antics, indecent deeds, foul language. And here's another good side of this arrangement of dining out: when returning home, participants in phidithies must walk and be careful not to stumble when drunk, they must know that they cannot stay where they dined, that they must walk in the dark , as during the day, since even with a torch, one who is still serving garrison service is not allowed to walk. Further, noticing that the same food that gives a good complexion and health to the worker, gives an ugly fullness and illness to the idle, Lycurgus did not neglect this either ... That is why it is difficult to find people who are healthier, more physically resilient than the Spartans, for they equally exercise the legs, the arms, and the neck.
In contrast to most Greeks, Lycurgus considered the following to be necessary. In other states, each disposes of his own children, slaves and property; and Lycurgus, wishing to arrange so that citizens do not harm each other, but benefit each other, provided everyone equally
dispose of both his own children and those of others: after all, if everyone knows that before him are the fathers of those children whom he disposes of, then inevitably he will dispose of them as he would like to be treated of his own children. If a boy who has been beaten by an outsider complains to his father, it is considered shameful if the father does not beat his son again. So the Spartans are sure that none of them orders the boys anything shameful. Lycurgus also allowed, if necessary, the use of other people's slaves, and also established the general use of hunting dogs; therefore, those who do not have their own dogs invite others to hunt; and whoever does not have time to go hunting himself, he willingly gives dogs to others. Horses are also used in the same way: whoever gets sick or who needs a cart, or who wants to go somewhere as soon as possible, he takes the first horse that comes across and, when necessary, puts it back in good order. And here is another custom, not adopted by the rest of the Greeks, but introduced by Lycurgus. In case people were late on the hunt and, without capturing supplies, would need them, Lycurgus established that those who had supplies left them, and those in need could open the locks, take as much as they needed, and lock the rest again. Thus, due to the fact that the Spartans share so with each other, they even have poor people, if they need anything, they have a share in all the wealth of the country.
READING ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD (Part 2. History of antiquity)
for 1st year students of the Faculty of History
correspondence department
Voronezh 2011
Anthology on the history of the ancient world. (Part 2. History of Antiquity) - Voronezh: Voronezh State University Publishing House, 2007. - p.
Compilers - Ph.D. ist. Sci., Associate Professor of VSPU O.V. Karmazina
cand. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor VSPU L.A. Sakhnenko
Reviewer
Xenophon
State of the Lacedaemonians, 5-7; 8-10
... Having caught the Spartans in an order in which they, like all other Greeks, dined each in their own house, Lycurgus saw in this circumstance the reason for very many frivolous acts. Lycurgus made public their comradely dinners in the expectation that this would most likely eliminate the possibility of disobeying orders. He allowed the citizens to consume food in such quantity that they would not be overly satiated, but also not suffer a shortage; however, game is often served, as an addition, and rich people sometimes bring wheat bread; thus, while the Spartans live together in tents, their table never suffers from a lack of food, nor from excessive cost. It is the same with drinking: having stopped excessive drinking, relaxing the body, relaxing the mind, Lycurgus allowed everyone to drink only to satisfy thirst, believing that drinking under such conditions would be both harmless and most pleasant. At common dinners, how could anyone cause serious damage to himself and his household by delicacy of food or drunkenness? In all other states, peers are, for the most part, together and are least embarrassed by each other; Lycurgus, in Sparta, connected the ages so that young people were brought up mainly under the guidance of the experience of the elders. It is customary to talk about the deeds committed by someone in the state in phiditias; therefore, there is almost no place for arrogance, drunken antics, indecent deeds, foul language. And here's another good side of this arrangement of dining out: when returning home, participants in phidithies must walk and be careful not to stumble when drunk, they must know that they cannot stay where they dined, that they must walk in the dark , as during the day, since even with a torch, one who is still serving garrison service is not allowed to walk. Further, noticing that the same food that gives a good complexion and health to the worker, gives an ugly fullness and illness to the idle, Lycurgus did not neglect this either ... That is why it is difficult to find people who are healthier, more physically resilient than the Spartans, for they equally exercise the legs, the arms, and the neck.
In contrast to most Greeks, Lycurgus considered the following to be necessary. In other states, each disposes of his own children, slaves and property; and Lycurgus, wishing to arrange so that citizens do not harm each other, but benefit each other, provided everyone equally
dispose of both his own children and those of others: after all, if everyone knows that before him are the fathers of those children whom he disposes of, then inevitably he will dispose of them as he would like to be treated of his own children. If a boy who has been beaten by an outsider complains to his father, it is considered shameful if the father does not beat his son again. So the Spartans are sure that none of them orders the boys anything shameful. Lycurgus also allowed, if necessary, the use of other people's slaves, and also established the general use of hunting dogs; therefore, those who do not have their own dogs invite others to hunt; and whoever does not have time to go hunting himself, he willingly gives dogs to others. Horses are also used in the same way: whoever gets sick or who needs a cart, or who wants to go somewhere as soon as possible, he takes the first horse that comes across and, when necessary, puts it back in good order. And here is another custom, not adopted by the rest of the Greeks, but introduced by Lycurgus. In case people were late on the hunt and, without capturing supplies, would need them, Lycurgus established that those who had supplies left them, and those in need could open the locks, take as much as they needed, and lock the rest again. Thus, due to the fact that the Spartans share so with each other, they even have poor people, if they need anything, they have a share in all the wealth of the country.
Also, in contrast to the rest of the Greeks, Lycurgus established the following orders in Sparta. In the rest of the states, each, as far as possible, makes a fortune for himself: one is engaged in agriculture, the other is a shipowner, the third is a merchant, and some are fed by crafts; in Sparta, Lycurgus, forbade the free to engage in anything connected with profit, but established that only such occupations that provide the state with freedom should be recognized as suitable for them. And indeed, what is the point of striving for wealth where, by his ordinances on equal contributions to meals, on the same way of life for all, the legislator has stopped any desire to acquire money for the sake of pleasant gain? There is no need to accumulate wealth for clothes, since in Sparta the decoration is not the luxury of dress, but the health of the body. And for spending on comrades, it’s also not worth saving up money, since Lycurgus inspired that it’s more glory to help comrades with personal labor than money - he considered the first a matter of the soul, the second only a matter of wealth. Lycurgus also forbade dishonest enrichment by such orders. First of all, he established such a coin that; if she got into the house for only ten minutes, it would not be hidden either from masters or from domestic slaves, because it would require a lot of space and a whole cart for transportation. Gold and silver are monitored, and if anyone has any of it, the owner is fined. So why was it necessary to strive for enrichment where possession brings more grief than waste-pleasure?
In Sparta, the laws are especially strictly obeyed ... However, I do not think that Lycurgus would begin to introduce this beautiful order without first obtaining the consent of the most influential people in the state ... Since, according to influential people, obedience is the greatest blessing in the city, and in the army, and in the house, then these same people naturally gave strength to the ephorian power: the stronger the power, the more, in their opinion, it should induce citizens to obedience. The ephors have the right to subject anyone to punishment, they have the power to exact immediately, they have the power to remove from office before the expiration of the term and imprison officials, initiate a process against them that threatens death ...
In Sparta, the laws are especially strictly obeyed ... However, I do not think that Lycurgus would begin to introduce this beautiful order without first obtaining the consent of the most influential people in the state ... Since, according to influential people, obedience is the greatest blessing in the city, and in the army, and in the house, then these same people naturally gave strength to the ephorian power: the stronger the power, the more, in their opinion, it should induce citizens to obedience. The ephors have the right to punish anyone, they have the power to exact immediately, they have the power to remove from office before the expiration of the term and imprison officials, initiate a process against them, threatening death.
Reader on the History of the Ancient World, ed. V. V. Struve, vol. II. M., Uchpedgiz, 1951, No. 49.
PAUSANIA, DESCRIPTION OF HELLAS, 111.20 (6)
... Near the sea was the town of Gelos ... Subsequently, the Dorians took it by siege. The inhabitants of this city became the first public slaves of the Lacedaemonians and the first were called helots, i.e. "captured", which they really were. The name of the helots then spread to the slaves subsequently acquired, although, for example, the Messenians were Dorians ...
LIBANIUS, SPEECH, 25, 63
Against the Helots, the Lacedaemonians gave themselves complete freedom to kill them, and of them Critias says that in Lacedaemon there is the most complete slavery of some and the most complete freedom of others. “After all, because of what else,” says Critias himself, “if not because of distrust of these very helots, the Spartiate takes away the handle of the shield from them at home? After all, he does not do this in war, because there it is often necessary to be extremely efficient. He always walks with a spear in his hands, so that he will be stronger than the helot if he rebels, armed with only a shield. They also invented for themselves constipation, with the help of which they believe to overcome the intrigues of the helots.
It would be the same (criticizes Libanius Kritia) as living together with someone, feeling fear of him and not daring to rest from the expectation of dangers. And how can those who, both during breakfast, and in a dream, and when administering some other need, are armed with fear in relation to slaves, how can such people ... enjoy real freedom.? .. Just like kings have they were by no means free, in view of the fact that the ephors had the power to bind and execute the king, so all the Spargiates were deprived of their freedom, living in conditions of hatred before the side of the slaves.
Reader on the History of the Ancient World, ed. V. V. Struve, vol. II. M., Uchpedgiz, 1951, No. 54.
PERIKLES
Translation by S.I. Sobolevsky, processing of the translation for this reprint by S.S. Averintsev, notes by M.L. Gasparov.
2. Pericles was ... both on the paternal and maternal side of the house and clan, which occupied the first place. Xanthippus, the conqueror of the barbarian generals at Mycale, married Agariste of the clan of Cleisthenes, who expelled the Peisistratids, courageously overthrew tyranny, gave laws to the Athenians and established a political system, mixing in it different elements quite expediently for the harmony and well-being of citizens. Agarista dreamed that she gave birth to a lion, and a few days later she gave birth to Pericles. He had no bodily defects; only the head was oblong and disproportionately large. That is why he is depicted in almost all the statues with a helmet on his head - obviously, because the sculptors did not want to represent him in a shameful form ...
The closest person to Pericles, who breathed into him a majestic way of thinking that elevated him above the level of an ordinary leader of the people, and generally gave his character a high dignity, was Anaxagoras of Klazomen, whom his contemporaries called "Mind" - whether because they were surprised at his great, extraordinary mind that manifested itself in the study of nature, or because he was the first to put forward as the principle of the structure of the universe not chance or necessity, but mind, pure, unmixed, which in all other objects, mixed, singles out homogeneous particles.
5. Feeding extraordinary respect for this man, imbued with his teachings on celestial and atmospheric phenomena, Pericles, as they say, not only acquired a lofty way of thinking and sublimity of speech, free from flat, nasty buffoonery, but also a serious expression on his face, inaccessible to laughter , calm gait, modesty in the manner of wearing clothes, not disturbed by any affect during speech, the even voice and similar properties of Pericles made a surprisingly strong impression on everyone ... The poet Ion claims that Pericles' treatment of people was rather arrogant and that his boasting was mixed with a lot of arrogance and contempt for others ...
7. In his youth, Pericles was very afraid of the people: by himself he seemed like the tyrant Pisistratus; his pleasant voice, the ease and speed of the language in conversation, by this similarity, inspired fear in very old people. And since he owned wealth, came from a noble family, had influential friends, he was afraid of ostracism and therefore did not engage in public affairs, but on campaigns he was brave and looked for dangers. When Aristides died, Themistocles was in exile, and Cimon's campaigns were kept for the most part outside Hellas, then Pericles enthusiastically set to political activity. He took the side of democracy and the poor, and not the side of the rich and aristocrats - contrary to his natural inclinations, completely undemocratic. Apparently, he was afraid of being suspected of striving for tyranny, and besides, he saw that Cimon was on the side of the aristocrats and was extremely loved by them. Therefore, he enlisted the favor of the people in order to ensure his safety and gain strength to fight Kimon.
Immediately after this, Pericles changed his whole way of life. In the city he was seen walking along only one road - to the square and to the Council. He refused invitations to dinners and all such friendly, short relations ... Pericles behaved in the same way in relation to the people: in order not to satiate him with his constant presence, he appeared among the people only at times, spoke not on every business and did not always speak in the National Assembly, but reserved himself ... for important matters, and did everything else through his friends and other speakers sent by him. One of them, they say, was Ephialtes, who crushed the power of the Areopagus...
8. Pericles, tuning his speech like a musical instrument ... far surpassed all orators. For this reason, they say, he was given his famous nickname. However, some think that he was nicknamed the "Olympian" for the buildings with which he decorated the city, others - for his successes in state activity and in command of the army; and there is nothing incredible that a combination of many of the qualities inherent in him contributed to his fame. However, from the comedies of that time, the authors of which often commemorate his name both seriously and with laughter, it is clear that this nickname was given to him mainly for his gift of speech: as they say, he thundered and threw lightning when he spoke to the people , and wore a terrible perun on the tongue ...
9. Thucydides depicts the state system under Pericles as aristocratic, which was democratic only in name, but in fact was the domination of one dominant person. According to many other authors, Pericles accustomed the people to cleruchia - receiving money for spectacles, receiving rewards; as a result of this bad habit, the people, from a modest and industrious under the influence of the then political measures, became wasteful and self-willed. Consider the reason for this change on the basis of facts.
At first, as mentioned above, Pericles, in the struggle with the glory of Cimon, tried to win the favor of the people; he was inferior to Cimon in wealth and money, with which he attracted the poor. Kimon invited citizens in need to dine every day, dressed the elderly, removed the fences from his estates so that whoever wanted to use their fruits. Pericles, feeling defeated by such demagogic devices, on the advice of Damonides of Ei, turned to the division of public money, as Aristotle testifies. By distributing money for spectacles, paying remuneration for the performance of judicial and other duties, and various assistance, Pericles bribed the masses of the people and began to use them to fight the Areopagus, of which he was not a member ... So, Pericles with his adherents, having gained more influence from the people, defeated the Areopagus: most of the court cases were taken from him with the help of Ephialtes, Cimon was expelled by ostracism as a supporter of the Spartans and an enemy of democracy, although he was not inferior to anyone else in wealth and origin, although he won such glorious victories over the barbarians and enriched the fatherland with a large amount money and spoils of war, as recounted in his biography. So great was the power of Pericles among the people!
10. The expulsion by means of ostracism of persons subjected to it was limited by law to a certain period - ten years ...
11 .... Pericles then especially loosened the bridle of the people and began to be guided in his policy by the desire to please him: he constantly arranged some kind of solemn spectacles, or feasts, or processions in the city, occupied the inhabitants with noble entertainments, sent sixty triremes every year, on which many citizens sailed for eight months and received a salary, at the same time acquiring skill and knowledge in maritime affairs. In addition, he sent a thousand Cleruchians to Chersonesus, five hundred to Naxos, half of this number to Andros, a thousand to Thrace to settle among the Bisalts, others to Italy, with the renewal of Sybaris, which they now began to call Furies. In carrying out these activities, he was guided by the desire to free the city from the idle and restless crowd due to idleness and at the same time help the poor people, as well as keep the allies under fear and surveillance in order to prevent their attempts to revolt by the settlement of Athenian citizens near them.
12. But what gave the inhabitants the most pleasure and served as an ornament to the city, which led the whole world to astonishment, which, finally, is the only proof that the illustrious power of Hellas and her former wealth is not a false rumor, is the construction of magnificent buildings. But for this, more than for all the rest of the political activity of Pericles, the enemies condemned him and blackened him in the National Assembly. “The people are dishonoring themselves,” they shouted, “it is notorious for the fact that Pericles transferred the common Hellenic treasury to himself from Delos; The most plausible pretext by which the people can justify this reproach is that the fear of the barbarians made them take the common treasury from there and keep it in a safe place; but this justification was taken away from the people by Pericles. The Hellenes understand that they endure terrible violence and are exposed to open tyranny, seeing that with the money they are forced to contribute, intended for war, we gild and decorate the city, like a dandy woman, hanging it with expensive marble, statues of gods and temples worth thousands talents."
In view of this, Pericles pointed out to the people: “The Athenians are not obliged to give an account to the allies in money, because they wage war in their defense and hold back the barbarians, while the allies do not supply anything - neither a horse, nor a ship, nor a hoplite, but only pay money; and money does not belong to the one who gives it, but to the one who receives it, if he delivers what he receives for. But if the state is sufficiently supplied with articles needed for war, it is necessary to spend its wealth on such works, which, after their completion, will bring eternal glory to the state, and during the execution will immediately serve as a source of prosperity, due to the fact that all kinds of work will appear and different needs that awaken all sorts of crafts, give employment to all hands, deliver earnings to almost the entire state, so that it decorates and feeds itself at its own expense. And indeed, people young and strong were given earnings from social sums by campaigns; and Pericles wanted that the working masses, who did not carry out military service, should not be destitute, but at the same time that they should not receive money in inactivity and idleness.
Therefore, Pericles presented to the people many grandiose projects of buildings and work plans that required the use of various crafts and were designed for a long time, so that the population remaining in the city had the right to use public funds no less than citizens who were in the fleet, in garrisons, on campaigns ....
14. Thucydides and the orators of his party raised the cry that Pericles wasted money and deprived the state of revenues. Then Pericles in the Assembly asked the people whether he found that much had been spent. The answer was that a lot. “In that case,” said Pericles, “let these costs be not on your account, but on mine, and on the buildings I will write my name.” After these words of Pericles, the people, whether admiring the greatness of his spirit, or not wanting to give him the glory of such buildings, shouted that he would attribute all costs to the public account and spend, sparing nothing. Finally, he entered into a fight with Thucydides, at the risk of being ostracized himself. He achieved the expulsion of Thucydides and defeated the opposing party.
15. When discord was thus completely eliminated and complete unity and harmony came in the state, Pericles concentrated in himself Athens itself and all the affairs that depended on the Athenians - the contributions of the allies, the army, the fleet, the islands, the sea, the great power, the source of which both Greeks and barbarians served, and the supreme dominion, protected by conquered peoples, friendship with kings and alliance with petty rulers.
But Pericles was no longer the same - he was not, as before, an obedient instrument of the people, easily yielding and peaceful to the passions of the crowd, as if to the breaths of the wind; instead of the former weak, sometimes somewhat accommodating demagogy, like pleasant, gentle music, in his policy he dragged out the song in an aristocratic and monarchical way and carried out this policy in accordance with the public good straightforwardly and adamantly. For the most part, he led the people with persuasion and instruction, so that the people themselves wanted the same. However, there were cases when the people expressed discontent; then Pericles pulled the reins and, directing him to his own good, forced him to obey his will ...
In a people that has such a strong power, all kinds of passions naturally arise. Pericles alone knew how to skillfully manage them, influencing the people mainly with hope and fear, as with two rudders: either he restrained his impudent self-confidence, then, when his spirit was low, he encouraged and consoled him. He proved by this that eloquence, in the words of Plato, is the art of controlling souls and that its main task lies in the ability to correctly approach various characters and passions, as if to some tones and sounds of the soul, the extraction of which requires a touch or blow of a very skillful arms. However, the reason for this was not just the power of the word, but, as Thucydides says, the glory of his life and trust in him: everyone saw his disinterestedness and incorruptibility. Although he made a great city into the greatest and richest, although he surpassed in power many kings and tyrants, some of whom entered into agreements with him, binding even on their sons, he did not increase his fortune by one drachma over that which his father had left him.
16. And meanwhile he was omnipotent; Thucydides speaks of this directly; an indirect proof of this is the vicious antics of comedians, who call his friends new pisistratids, and they demand an oath from him that he will not be a tyrant, since his prominence is not consistent with democracy and is too burdensome. And Teleclides points out that the Athenians provided him
All tribute from the cities; he could bind any city or leave it free,
And protect it with a strong wall and destroy the walls again.
Everything is in his hands: alliances, and power, and strength, and peace, and wealth.
This position of Pericles was not a happy accident, it was not the highest point of some fleeting brilliant state activity or the grace of the people for it - no, for forty years he excelled among the Ephialtes, Leocrates, Mironides, Cimons, Tolmids and Thucydides, and after the fall of Thucydides and exiled by ostracism, he had at least fifteen years of uninterrupted, sole power, although the post of strategist is given for one year. With such power, he remained incorruptible, despite the fact that he was not indifferent to money matters.
When Pericles ... was at the height of his political power ... he proposed that only those whose father and mother were Athenian citizens should be considered Athenian citizens. When the Egyptian king sent forty thousand coppers of wheat as a gift to the people, and the citizens had to divide it among themselves, then on the basis of this law a lot of lawsuits arose against illegitimate children, the origin of which until then was either not known or looked at it through the fingers; many also fell victim to false denunciations. On this basis, almost five thousand people were found guilty and sold into slavery; and the number of those who retained the right of citizenship and were recognized as real Athenians turned out to be equal to fourteen thousand two hundred and forty ...
When Pericles was already at death, the best citizens and his surviving friends were sitting around him. They talked about his high qualities and political power, listed his exploits and the number of trophies: he erected nine trophies in memory of the victories won under his leadership for the glory of the fatherland. So they said to each other, thinking that he had already lost consciousness and did not understand them. But Pericles listened attentively to all this and, interrupting their conversation, said that he was surprised how they glorified and remembered such merits of him, in which an equal share belongs to happiness and which had already happened to many generals, but they don’t talk about the most glorious and important merit. : "Not a single Athenian citizen," he added, "did not put on a black cloak because of me."
As for Pericles, the events made the Athenians feel what he was for them, and regret him. People who were weary of his power during his lifetime, because it eclipsed them, but now, after he was gone, having experienced the power of other orators and leaders, they confessed that there had never been a person who was better able to combine modesty with a sense of dignity and majesty with dignity. meekness. And his strength, which aroused envy and which was called autocracy and tyranny, as they now understood, was the saving stronghold of the state system: destructive misfortunes fell upon the state and a deep corruption of morals was revealed, which, weakening and humbled it, did not allow it to manifest itself and turn into incurable disease.
The text is given according to the edition: Aristotle. "Politics. Athenian polity". Series: "From the classical heritage". M, Thought, 1997, p. 271-343.
PART ONE
X. Development of Democracy
26. This is how the right of supervision was taken away from the council of the Areopagites. And after that, the state system began to lose its strict order more and more due to the fault of people who set themselves demagogic goals ...
2 Although in general the Athenians did not adhere to the laws as strictly as before, nevertheless the order of electing the nine archons was not changed; only in the sixth year after the death of Ephialtes did they decide that the preliminary elections of candidates for the further drawing of lots in the commission of nine archons should also be made from the Zeugites, and for the first time Mnesifides was archon from among them. And until that time, all were from horsemen and pentakosiomedimni, while Zeugites usually performed ordinary posts, unless any deviation from the prescriptions of the laws was allowed. 3 In the fifth year after this, under the archon Lysicrates, thirty judges were again established, the so-called "demes", and in the third year after it, under Antidotus, due to an excessive number of citizens, at the suggestion of Pericles, they decided that they could not have civil rights one who is not descended from both citizens.
27. After that, Pericles acted as a demagogue ... Then the state system became even more democratic. Pericles took away some rights from the Areopagites and especially strongly insisted on the development of maritime power in the state. Thanks to her, the common people felt their power and tried to concentrate all political rights in their hands.
2 Then, in the 49th year after the battle of Salamis, under the archon Pythodorus, a war began with the Peloponnesians, during which the people, shut up in the city and accustomed to receiving a salary in military service, began to show more determination, partly consciously, partly from necessity, to govern the state himself.
3 Pericles also introduced salaries in the courts for the first time, using a demagogic device in opposition to the wealth of Cimon. The fact is that Cimon, having a purely royal condition, at first brilliantly performed only public liturgies, then he began to provide content for many of his demos. So, anyone from the Lakiads who wished could come to him every day and receive a modest allowance. In addition, his estates were all unfenced, so that anyone who wished could enjoy the fruits. 4 Pericles, not having the fortune to compete with him in generosity, took the advice of Damonides of Ei (this Damonides was considered in many cases the adviser of Pericles, therefore he was subsequently ostracized). This advice was that since Pericles does not have the same personal means as Cimon, then it is necessary to give the people their own means. For these reasons, Pericles introduced a salary for judges. On this basis, some consider him to be the culprit of moral decay, since it is not so much decent people as random people who are always busy with election. 5 After this, bribery also began, and Anitus was the first to set an example of this, after he had been a general in the campaign near Pylos. Having been brought to trial by some for the loss of Pylos, he bribed the court and obtained an acquittal.
28. While Pericles was at the head of the people, the affairs of state were comparatively well; when he died, they went much worse ...
PART ONE
IV. Archons
55 ... As for the so-called nine archons ... At present, six Thesmothetes and a secretary to them are elected by lot, in addition, an archon, a basileus and a polemarch - one from each phylum in turn. (2) They are subject to dokimasia first of all in the Council of Five Hundred - all except the secretary, and this latter only in court, like other officials (all elected by lot and by show of hands, take office only after dokimasia), nine archons - both in the Council, and secondarily in court. At the same time, in the past, the one who was rejected at the dokimasia by the Council could no longer take office, but now an appeal to the court is allowed, and this latter has a decisive vote in the dokimasia ...
56 ... (2) The archon, immediately after taking office, first of all announces through the herald that it is granted to everyone to own the property that each had before he took office, and to keep it until the end of his administration. (3) Then he appoints three of the wealthiest of all Athenians as choregines to represent the tragedies ... (4) Processions are under his authority: first, that which is arranged in honor of Asclepius ... He also organizes competitions in Dionysius and Thargelia. These are the festivals for which he has care.
(6) In addition, complaints are submitted to him in public and private matters. He examines them and sends them to court. These include cases of ill-treatment of parents, ill-treatment of orphans, ill-treatment of an heiress, damage to an orphan's property, insanity when someone accuses another of having lost his mind and wasting his fortune ... . At the same time, he has the right to impose disciplinary sanctions on the perpetrators or bring them to justice. Further, he leases the property of orphans and heirs until the woman is 14 years old, and takes security from the tenants. Finally, he exacts maintenance from the guardians if they do not give it to the children.
57… Basileus is in charge first of all of the mysteries… then of Dionysius… He also arranges all competitions with torches; he also manages his father's sacrifices, one might say, all.
(2) Written complaints are submitted to him in cases of wickedness, and also in cases where someone disputes with another the right to the priesthood. Then, he resolves all disputes between clans and priests on matters of worship. Finally, all murder proceedings are initiated with him, and it is his duty to declare the criminal deprived of the protection of laws.
(3) Proceedings for murder and wounding, if one intentionally kills or injures another, are dealt with in the Areopagus; also cases of poisoning, if someone causes death by giving poison, and cases of arson. This is exclusively the circle of cases judged by the Council of the Areopagus ... The judges sit in a sacred place under the open sky, and during the trial the basileus takes off his wreath. A person who bears such an accusation is not allowed to visit sacred places all this time, and he is not even supposed to enter the square; but at that moment he enters a sacred place and there he speaks in his defense...
58. Polemarchos sacrifices to Artemis the Huntress and Enialius... (2) He also initiates private lawsuits concerning meteks, equally liable and proxenes... (3) He personally litigates in court for violation of duties in relation to the former owner and for lack of a prostate , about the inheritances and heirs of the metecs, and in general the polemarch is in charge of all those matters among the metecs, which the archon sorts out from the citizens.
59. The Thesmothetes have the power, first of all, to appoint which judicial commissions and on what days should judge, then to transfer the leadership of these commissions to officials; these latter act according to the instructions of the Thesmothetes. (2) Then, they report to the people on the emergency declarations received, put forward cases of the removal of officials by test vote, all kinds of proposals for preliminary sentences, complaints about illegalities and statements that the proposed law is unsuitable, also about the actions of the proedra and epistats and about the reporting of strategists ...
ARISTOTLE. POLITICS
II, 4. That the equation of property has its significance in the community of the state, this, apparently, was clearly recognized even by some of the ancient legislators. So, for example, Solon established a law that is also in force in other states, which prohibits the acquisition of land in any amount.
II, 9, 2. Solon is considered by some to be a good legislator. He, as they say, overthrew the oligarchy, which was excessive at that time, delivered the people from slavery and established democracy "according to the precepts of the fathers", successfully establishing a mixed system: namely, the Areopagus is an oligarchic institution, the filling of posts by elections is aristocratic, the trial by jury is democratic. Solon, apparently, did not abolish the institutions that existed before - the council of the Areopagus and the election of officials, but established democracy by the very fact that he made jury trials from the entire composition of citizens. That is why some people accuse him: he, they say, abolished even the first, when he gave power over everything to the court, since the court is chosen by lot. It was precisely when the court gained power that the people, like a tyrant, began to be catered to and finally the polity was turned into a modern democracy.
III, 2, 10 ... Here is what, for example, Cleisthenes did in Athens after the expulsion of the tyrants: he included many foreigners and slaves living there in the phyla. With regard to them, it is not a question of who is a citizen, but how he became one - illegally or by right.
VI, 2, 9-11, 6-27. In order to establish this type of democracy and strengthen the people, its leaders usually try to take into their midst as many people as possible and make citizens not only legitimate, but also illegitimate, and even those in whom only one of the parents has civil rights - father or mother. The fact is that all these elements especially sympathize with such a democracy ... Further, for such a democracy, the methods that Cleisthenes used in Athens when he wanted to strengthen democracy, and those figures who tried to establish a democratic system in Cyrene, are also useful. Indeed, it is necessary to organize new phyla and phratries, and, moreover, in large numbers; private cults should be united in a small number and made public; in a word, it is necessary to invent all means so that everything is mixed up with each other as much as possible, and at the same time, so that the former associations are broken.
Aristotle. Athenian polity. Applications. M.-L., Sotsekgiz, 1936, S.119-152.
A READER ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD AGOGICH PUBLISHING HOUSE OF THE MINISTRY ENLIGHTENED THE RSFSR ANCIENT EAST APPROVED BY THE MINISTRY OF ENLIGHTENMENT R.S.F.S.R. MOSCOW 195 0 Compiled by IS Katsnel'son and DG Raeder PREFACE The farther away from our days, into the depths of centuries and millennia, the historian-researcher goes, the more difficulties he has to overcome on his way. If a scientist has thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands of the most diverse documents at his disposal for studying the recent past, the understanding of which from the point of view of philology does not raise any doubts, then the historian of antiquity has to restore the past of disappeared peoples and extinct civilizations from fragmentary and scattered , accidentally surviving sources. The history of some countries, such as Greece, Rome, China, is known better. The tradition here has never completely , a sufficient number of documents have been preserved, including many very informative ones. Nevertheless, certain periods of their history, especially the early ones, are still unclear. So, for example, we are very poorly informed about Greece in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. or about the reign of the "kings" in Rome. The past of other countries has only recently become the property of science thanks to the joint efforts of several generations of archaeologists. They extracted archives, victory inscriptions, letters and treaties, frescoes and reliefs from the ruins of disappeared cities and temples, from burials and residential buildings, with the help of which we are now able to more or less fully present the main events and facts of the history of the peoples of antiquity, in including the peoples of the Middle East, as well as replenish our knowledge of the most ancient periods of ancient countries. However, the scientist here is often at the mercy of chance. While the history of some peoples or periods is almost unknown to us due to the lack of sources, we are better aware of other states and eras. Track; It is necessary to take into account other circumstances: "a relatively limited number of written monuments, their fragmentation, one-sidedness of content, difficulty of understanding, due both to insufficient knowledge of ancient Eastern languages (many words and phrases are still not" solved or seem to be controversial), so and obscurity and incompleteness of exposition. If in the bourgeois historiography of modern and recent history, where, it would seem, documents provide less opportunity for various kinds of rumors and falsifications, we usually meet with a conscious distortion of historical reality, with a biased interpretation of sources and a juggling of facts, then all the more bourgeois scholars freely deal with the sources of ancient history, in particular, with texts. The fragmentary and incomplete nature of the latter, the obscurity and difficulty of the language, provide ample opportunities for the most arbitrary and far-fetched interpretations to please the preconceived point of view of this or that bourgeois researcher, striving consciously or unconsciously to fulfill the social order of his masters. These circumstances largely explain why modern Anglo-American sociologists, historians, economists, philosophers, etc., are so eager to turn to the distant past. They borrow material from there for all sorts of dubious comparisons and comparisons in order to justify the capitalist system, to propagate various misanthropic racial theories. Not without reason, for example, the American senator Theodore Bilbo, in his book, published in 1947 under the sensational title "Choose between isolation and turning into bastards," seeks to prove, using all the methods of fascist racism, that the ancient "Aryan" civilizations of Egypt, India, Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece and Rome perished as a result of the fact that the ruling classes belonging to the "Caucasian race" allowed mixing, merging with non-Aryan races. From this he draws a conclusion about the threat of the destruction of the civilization of the white man, about the threat to the very existence of the United States as a result of the mixing of the blood of the white man with representatives of other races, primarily with blacks. versions and modifications, the concept of the development of society - the notorious "cyclic" theory of E. Meyer - was based by him mainly on the material of ancient monuments, because it was they who provided him and his students and followers with wide opportunities for arbitrary and tendentious interpretation due to the indicated features inherent in them . Only with the help of the only scientific method, the method of dialectical and historical materialism, which established the laws of social development and outlined its main stages, can one determine the main features of the first class formation - the slaveholding, inherent in the ancient world. Only when scholars approached the study of sources from the standpoint of Marxist-Leninist theory were they able to find out what the school was. Racial theories in the service and imperialism. “Issues of the book of the office”, 1948. No. 2. p. 272. the emergence, existence and death of the first class, slave-owning states are caught, regardless of whether the latter represented one of the varieties of the ancient eastern despotism or the ancient policy - the city -states. This is the main merit of Soviet science. And here it is especially necessary to emphasize the fundamental need to work on primary sources, because only through a thorough analysis, a deeply thought-out interpretation of each word, each term, each provision, as a result of an accurate understanding of the general orientation of the text, one can come to substantiated and scientific conclusions corresponding to objective truth. not only brilliantly confirmed the validity of the doctrine of the development of society by Marx-Engels-Lenin-Stalin, but, in turn, backed it up with concrete material, thus giving new proof of the genius of the founders of scientific socialism. Of course, the successes of Soviet historical science were not achieved all at once. I had to overcome both inertia and traditions inherited from bourgeois science, and the admiration inherent in some specialists for the indisputability of the authority of the “luminaries” of Western scientists, and the conscious desire of pests to present a distorted picture of the development of society. Much is still unclear, some problems are still the subject of disagreements and disputes, but the main thing is that the nature of the slave-owning society and the basic laws of its development, in particular, the ancient Eastern one, no longer raises doubts. Summing up what Marxist historiography has achieved, enriched by the works of Lenin and Stalin, we can come to the following conclusions on some of the most important problems. The first class societies arose where the geographical environment was most conducive to accelerating the development of productive forces and social relations and facilitated the transition from the communal-tribal system to the slave-owning system, because the geographical environment “... is undoubtedly one of the constant and necessary conditions development of society and it, of course, affects the development of society - it accelerates or slows down the course of development of society "1. At the same time, of course, we must remember that "... its influence is not a determining influence, since changes and development of society occur incomparably faster than the changes and development of the geographic environment” 2. The tribes of nomadic hunters and pastoralists, who inhabited the boundless steppes of Central Asia, Arabia and Africa thousands of years ago, stood at the lower and middle stages of barbarism. , Questions 2 Ibid. 11th, 1945, p. 548. “Only by remaining in small numbers could they continue to be barbarians. They were shepherd tribes, hunters and warriors; their mode of production required a vast expanse of land for each individual, as is still the case among the Indian tribes of North America. When they increased in number, they reduced each other's area of production. Therefore, the surplus population was forced to embark on those great fairy tale journeys that laid the foundation for the formation of peoples in ancient and modern Europe. So these tribes ended up in the valleys of the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, the Huang He, where the first class societies were born, the basis of the economy of which was agriculture, because it was here, in the valleys of the great rivers, that the conditions for its development were most favorable. “The state arose on the basis of the split of society into hostile classes, it arose in order to keep the exploited majority in check in the interests of the exploiting minority,” says Comrade Stalin. “Two main functions characterize the activities of the state: internal (main) - to keep the exploited majority in check and external (not main) - to expand the territory of its own, the ruling class at the expense of the territory of other states, or to protect the territory of its state from attacks by others. states” 2. The primitive communal system, not exposed to the influence of a more developed society, could not bypass the slave-owning mode of production in its development. It became slave-owning, not feudal. This is one of the main propositions of Marxism relating to social formations. Since the class society of the countries of the Ancient East took shape at the dawn of civilization in an original way, without the influence of other class societies, any kind of attempt to prove the existence of elements of a semi-feudal system in them objectively leads to a revision of the most important laws of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the development of society. In ancient Eastern despotisms there was a double form of exploitation in relation to two different social groups. The first of them, the right to receive rent-tax from rural communities - the "agricultural population", dates back to ancient times, to the exploitation of the tribal nobility of their fellow tribesmen, to relations that are still semi-patriarchal. For example, in the era of the decomposition of the tribal system, free Greek peasants of the Homeric period paid this rent tax to their basileus. The pharaoh of Egypt could transfer one or several rural communities into possession to his entourage in order to receive Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. IX, pp. 278-279. 2 Stalin, Questions of Leninism, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 604. taxes similar to those paid by rural obinitts to the granaries of the basileus. It must be emphasized that in no case should one compare the service just mentioned, imposed on rural communities under the conditions of ancient Eastern despotism, or Homeric Greece, or the royal period of Rome, with feudal rent, as bourgeois historians did and do, and after them and some Soviet scientists. The rent-analogue, the "tribute" levied on free community members, is an inconsistency created in the conditions of a decaying patriarchal system. The second form of exploitation inherent in ancient Eastern society, according to Marx, is slave-owning exploitation, exploitation by kings, priests, nobility, and then by the most prosperous strata of the free "non-agricultural population" - slaves. Compared to the first form, it is more progressive. For if the exploitation of the “agricultural population” goes back to semi-patriarchal duties, then the exploitation of slaves was created in the conditions of a class society and was expressed, first of all, in the work on the creation of gigantic structures, primarily irrigation. The presence of these two forms of exploitation - patriarchal and slave-owning - creates the peculiarity of the first class society, which took shape in ancient times in Asia and Egypt. From here it is possible to derive a clear and precise definition of the ancient Eastern society, as a semi-worker in a businesslike o-semi-semi-pat. b II about g about. The leading, progressive in the East was then, of course, slave-owning exploitation. Therefore, we have the right to call these early class societies that existed in Asia and Egypt in antiquity, in the era preceding the ancient world, also primarily with k and m and. Thus, the ancient Eastern despotisms were an organization with the help of which the ruling class (the king-despot, the nobility, the priesthood, the commercial and usurious stratum, sometimes the military caste, etc.) carried out the exploitation of the community members and slaves. Numerous wars, common for the states of the Ancient East, were waged in the interests of the ruling class in order to capture slaves, wealth and territories of neighboring countries. For bourgeois science, it is usually the desire to contrast or separate the past of the countries and peoples of the Middle East from the most ancient periods in the history of India and China. The former are considered by her as the forerunners of ancient and, consequently, European culture, which was fixed at the end of the 19th century. by the French scientist G. Maspero in the term "classical East", which especially sharply emphasized the difference between the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean and adjacent areas and the countries of the Far East. The first was given special attention in the construction of world history. Meanwhile, India and China, which contributed their share to the treasury of human culture, in the era of the birth and existence of the TaiM slave-owning system, are characterized by the same socio-economic relations, the same general laws of development as for the countries of the Near East. All of them represent a single whole - one formation. This is confirmed not only by the data of recent archaeological excavations, but also by an unbiased study of written sources. It is a mistake, however, to unconditionally identify all the countries of the Ancient East, without distinguishing between the features of the development of individual states, just as one should not, for example, erase the differences in the history of Attica, Sparta, Eiotia, Macedonia. It is necessary to take into account the specific conditions that determined the distinctive features of the historical existence of each people. If Egypt and Babylon can be characterized as agricultural slave-owning despotisms, and in the first of them the unlimited power of the king reached its apogee, then the Phoenician city-states serve as an example of a typical trading and slave-owning society in which the power of the king was limited to the nobility and the richest merchants. In the same way, Assyria is an example of a predatory, military-predatory state, which based its well-being on the ruthless exploitation and plunder of conquered countries. The history of the primitive slave-owning despotisms of the Ancient East is closely connected with the ancient world. Greece and Rome qualitatively, fundamentally, do not stand out among other ancient societies. They represent only the highest stage in the development of the slave-owning formation. In the Neo-Babylonian kingdom of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. we encounter such forms of exploitation of slaves as, for example, peculia, which bring to mind imperial Rome, and Sparta, with its collective slavery, can be compared in this respect with the city-states of Sumer at the beginning of the third millennium. The examples just given are not isolated. However, it is impossible to pass by some of the features inherent in primitive slave-owning societies, which distinguish them from ancient ones. These features are manifested primarily in the preservation of the remnants of the primitive communal system and elements of patriarchal relations, in the long-term existence of the rural community and the slow, stagnant forms of its development, explained to a large extent by the fact that the basis of the economy among the leading eastern peoples is irri. gation, artificial irrigation. “Agriculture here is built mainly on artificial irrigation, and this irrigation is already a matter for the community, region, or central government.” XXI, p. 494. forms of land ownership. “In the Asian (at least predominant) form, there is no property of an individual, but only his possession; the real, real owner is the community. .."one. Related to this is patriarchal domestic slavery, so characteristic of most countries of the Ancient East. Further, for primitive slave-owning societies, the undifferentiated unity of town and country is very typical. Cities usually exist only as administrative, religious or commercial centers, and a significant part of their population is employed in agriculture. Handicraft and agriculture are still united. The need to unite the efforts of individual communities for the construction of an irrigation system creates, at a certain level, the development of productive forces, the prerequisites for the formation of a political superstructure in the form of an oriental despotism, which has reached its most perfect embodiment in the unlimited power of the Egyptian pharaoh, likened to a god. He, like the kings of other countries of the Ancient East, carried out “... a binding unity realized in a despot...” 2, which rallied rural communities into a single whole. It was they who constituted "...a solid basis for stagnant Asiatic despotism" 3. The development of private property, associated with the development of lands not irrigated by the communal irrigation system, the so-called high fields, and with the exploitation of the labor of slaves, leads to a more or less rapid , depending on the specific development conditions of each country, the stratification of the rural community. But there are people deprived of the means of production, forced to go into bondage to the rich. Over time, the latter completely enslave them. Long-term slavery and the heavy oppression to which the masses of ordinary community members in the Eastern despotisms were subjected prevent the use of war slave slaves in large numbers. The number of foreign slaves was relatively small, and their labor did not penetrate to such an extent into crafts and agriculture, ousting free producers from there, as was the case in Greece and Rome. The direct producer in the countries of the Ancient East, along with the slave, was the community member, who, if he worked throughout the year not for himself, occupied the position of a slave. In other cases, when the community still retained sufficient strength to resist the oppression of the ruling class, uprisings broke out, similar to the upheavals in Lagash under Urukagin or in Egypt at the end of the Middle Kingdom, undermining the foundations of the slave system and hastening its death. However, this resistance of the community members was eventually crushed, 1 Marx, Forms Preceding the Capitalist Proletarian Revolution, 1939, No. 3, p. 158. 2 Ibid., p. 152. I Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. XXI, p. 501. to production. and the oppression continued as before; and since “it was the community members who replenished the ranks of the army, their ruin and enslavement usually led to a weakening of the military potential of the state. Often, therefore, it fell under the yoke of another state, stronger at the time, and then the masses of the working population experienced a double oppression until, for the same reasons, the conquerors themselves became the prey of new conquerors. The history of the ancient Eastern despotisms of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, as well as the later Hellenistic monarchies, gives many examples of this. They included different tribes and peoples, bound together only by the force of the victorious weapon. They were not united by political, economic, or national interests, since nations did not yet exist at that time. They could disintegrate and disintegrated as a result of the aggravation of internal contradictions, as a result of blows from the outside. “These were not nations, but random and loosely connected conglomerates of groups, disintegrating and uniting depending on the success or defeat of one or another conqueror” *. Modern bourgeois science strives to belittle or pass over in silence the significance of the contribution made by the “non-Aryan” peoples of the ancient Eastern countries to the treasury of universal human culture, and in every possible way extols the “creative genius” of the ancient Hellenes and Romans, although both of them themselves pointed to the Egyptians and Babylonians as their teachers. Indeed, the better we get acquainted with the history and history of the culture of the countries of the Ancient East, the more we are convinced that it is here that we should look for the beginning of many sciences (although they are still inseparable from religion) - astronomy, mathematics, medicine. Here the first alphabet and the first written literary works appeared. The greatest monuments of fine arts and literature are created here. In Greece and Rome, the science, literature and art of the slave-owning society reach their peak and for the first time in history try to free themselves from the shackles of a religious worldview. Together with the cultural heritage of Greece and Rome, humanity also received the cultural heritage of the great civilizations of the Ancient East. Until the deciphering of the Cretan writings is completed, it is impossible to give an accurate description of the socio-economic structure of ancient Crete. However, the more complete our knowledge of it becomes due to the successes of archeology, the more definitely it can be argued that what developed on this island at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the state should be likened to other contemporary primitive slave-owning states of the eastern Mediterranean. The Cretan maritime power, which subjugated part of the islands of the Aegean Sea, ruled by 1 Stalin, Soch., vol. 2, ctd. ‘293. despot king and was in lively trade relations with the surrounding countries, resembles the Phoenician cities, although its political streak, apparently, differed from the political system of the latter. The prosperity of the island was greatly facilitated by its advantageous position in the center of maritime trade routes. According to a number of indirect signs, it is possible to establish the existence of slavery in it, for only slaves could be used as rowers on the numerous ships of the Cretans, who combined trade with robbery; only slaves, together with the involuntary local population, could build the huge, luxurious palaces of Phaistos and Knossos, lay roads or work in workshops that produced goods for sale. It is natural to assume that the intensification of exploitation and the ruin of the broad masses of the population ultimately led to the weakening of the Cretan state and facilitated its conquest in the 14th century. The Mycenaean state, uniting the Peloponnese, the islands adjacent to it, and some areas of central and northern Greece. The socio-political structure of the Mycenaean state in many respects resembled the organization of the Cretan society. It can be thought that the aristocratic families, whose welfare was based on agriculture, the exploitation of the agricultural population, especially the conquered countries, on predatory wars and raids, enjoyed great influence here, the despotic power of the king was limited to them. Crete connected the countries of Asia, Africa and Europe. Especially great is the significance of his culture, bright, original, but still influenced by the culture of other peoples (for example, the Egyptians and the Hittites), on which he, in turn, had a significant influence. The origins of Greek mythology, religion and art, and even legislation (for example, the Hortian Laws) are undoubtedly to be found on this island, which was the link between the ancient Eastern despotisms and the ancient world. In terms of stages, the society of Homeric Greece (XII-VIII centuries BC) is more primitive than the Cretan sea power or the Mycenaean state, since it was a pre-slave-owning, pre-class society. However, the path of its development was different, different from the path of development of the countries of the Ancient East, to which the latter can be attributed. Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" - our main sources - testify that this was "The full flowering of the highest stage of barbarism .." 1; every adult male in the tribe was a warrior; there was no public authority separated from the people that could be opposed to it. “Primitive democracy was still in full bloom...” 2. Classical in clarity 1 Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part 1. “The origin of the family, private property and the state”, p. 13. 2 T a m e. gtr 84 l F. Engels will give a deeper analysis of Homeric society in the conclusion of Chapter IV (“The Greek race”) of his immortal work “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”: “We see, therefore, in the Greek social system of the heroic era, the strength of the ancient tribal organization, but at the same time, the beginning of its destruction: paternal law with the inheritance of property by children, which favors the accumulation of wealth in the family and strengthens the family in opposition to the clan; the influence of property differences on the social system through the formation of the first rudiments of hereditary nobility and monarchy; slavery, at first only prisoners of war, but already preparing the possibility of enslaving one's own tribesmen and even relatives; the already ongoing degeneration of the former war between tribes into systematic robbery on land<и на море в целях захвата скота, рабов и сокровищ, превращение ее в регулярный промысел; од ним словом, восхваление и почитание богатстза как высшего блага и злоупотребление древними родовыми учреждениями для оправдания насильственного грабежа богатств» К Постоянные войны, которые способствовали объединению об щин, были основным средством добывания рабов. Однако раб ство носило тогда патриархальный, домашний характер. Труд рабов использовался преимущественно для домашних услуг или в хозяйствах родовой знати, которая стремится к закабалению своих соплеменников. Таким образом, в недрах родового обще ства формируются классы. «Недоставало только одного: учре ждения, которое обеспечивало бы вновь приобретенные богат ства отдельных лиц не только от коммунистических традиций ро дового строя, которое пе только сделало бы прежде столь мало ценившуюся частную собственность священной и это освящение объявило бы высшей целью всякого человеческого общества, но и приложило бы печать всеобщего общественного признания к развивающимся одна за другой новым формам приобретения соб ственности, следовательно и к непрерывно ускоряющемуся на коплению богатства; нехватало учреждения, которое увековечи вало бы не только начинающееся разделение общества на классы, но и право имущего класса на эксплоатацию неимущих и господство первого над последними. И такое учреждение появилось. Было изобретено г о с у д а р ство » 2. Но было бы неверно отождествлять все греческие государ ства. Каждое из них шло своим неповторимым путем развития. И наиболее типичны в этом отношении два - Спарта и Афины, сыгравшие ведущую роль в истории Эллады. | Маркс и Э н г е л ь с, Собр. соч., т. XVI, ч. семьи, частном событием мости и г о су д а р с тв а », стр. 86. 2 Т а м ж е, стр 8 6 - 87. 1, «Происхождение Государство в Спарте возникло раньше, в результате пере населения Пелопоннеса после проникновения туда дорийцев, стремившихся силой овладеть плодородными землями и порабо тить окружающие племена. На основании свидетельств античных авторов закабаление илотов должно быть объяснено завоева нием, а не «экономическими условиями», как пытаются доказать буржуазные ученые и в частности Э. Мейер. Этот способ эксплоа тации, напоминающий по форме крепостнический, явился след ствием завоевания и был более примитивным, чем эксплоатация рабов «Чтобы извлекать из пего (раба. - Ре д.) пользу, необ ходимо заранее приготовить, во-первых, материалы и орудия труда, во-вторых, средства для скудного пропитания раба»2. Спартиатам этого не требовалось. Они силой оружия покорили илотов и заставили их платить дань. Различие между рабами и илотами сводилось в основном лишь к тому, что в первом случае победители отрывали побе жденных от средств производства и уводили их к себе для ра боты в своем собственном хозяйстве или продавали, а во вто ром случае они оставляли покоренных па земле и принуждали выполнять различного рода повинности. Для устрашения илотов и удержания их в покорности применялись такие средства тер рора, как криптии. Согласно Плутарху, эфоры ежегодно объяв ляли илотам войну, чтобы предоставить спартиатам право безнаказиого истребления их Столь жестокое обращение могло иметь место в античном обществе лишь по отношению к потомкам покоренных силой оружия членов враждебных общин или племен, а не по отноше нию к обедневшим членам своей общины. Илоты поэтому обычно всегда противопоставлялись лакедемонянам, членам господ ствующей городской обшипы, и другим представителям класса свободных, например, периекам Эксплоатация илотов (а также близких к ним по положению пенестов, кларотов и т. д.) харак терна именно для наиболее отсталых обществ, например, Спарты, Фессалии. Крита, древнейшей Ассирии и т. д. По сравнению с ними даже примитивно-раго"вллдельческие государства архаиче ского Шумера или Египта несомненно более прогрессивны. Иными были, причины р.о"зиикновенпя и пути развития клас сового общества в Аттике, которое «...является в высшей степени типгчпы.м примером образования государства, потому что оно, с одной стороны, происходит в чистом виде, без всякого вмеша тельства внешнего или внутреннего насилия, - захват власти Пизистратом не оставил никаких следов своего короткого суще ствования.- с другО"П стороны, потому, что в данном случае очень развитая форма государства, демократическая республика, воз1 VIII, 2 3 Ф у к и д и д I, 5, "1; 11 я р. с. Маркс и П л у г а р х, 101; Л р и с т о т е л Политика 1, б, 2; С т р а б о н, л п и и, II!, 20 и т. д. Э и г о л!) с, Соб р. соч., т. XIV, «А н ти-Дю р и нг», стр. 163. Л и к у р г, 28. пикает непосредственно из родового общества, и, наконец, по тому, что мы в достаточной степени знаем все существенные по дробности образования этого государства» К Развитие производительных сил общин, объединившихся по степенно вокруг Афин, социальное расслоение внутри них, выде ление земледельческой аристократии, жестоко эксплоатировавшей своих соплеменников, концентрация земель, увеличение ко личества рабов, ростовщичество, расширение торговли и, как следствие, - рост денежного хозяйства, проникавшего «...точно разъедающая кислота, в основанный на натуральном хозяйстве исконный образ жизни сельских общин» 2. Все это «взрывало» прежние социальные установления и экономические связи. «Одним словом, родовой строй приходил к концу. Общество с каждым днем все более вырастало из его рамок; даже худшие отрицательные явления, которые возникали у всех на глазах, он не мог ни ослабить, ни устранить. А тем временем незаметно раз вилось государство» 3. Реформы Солона, проведенные в интересах частных земле владельцев и торговцев, устанавливали отчуждение и дробление земельных участков. Этим была отменена общинная собствен ность и разрушены основы общинно-родового строя. «Так как ро довой строй не мог оказывать эксплоатируемому народу ника кой помощи, то оставалось только возникающее государство. И оно действительно оказало помощь, введя конституцию Солона и в то же время снова усилившись за счет старого строя. Солон... открыл ряд так называемых политических революций, и притом с вторжением в отношения собственности. Все происходившие до сих пор революции были революциями для защиты одного вида собственности против другого вида собственности... в рево люции, произведенной Солоном, должна была пострадать соб ственность кредиторов в интересах собственности должников. Долги были попросту объявлены недействительными» 4. Вот по чему Афины, как и другие греческие полисы, не знали кабаль ного рабства. Последние остатки родового строя были уничто жены законодательством Клисфена. «В какой степени сложив шееся в главных своих чертах государство оказалось приспо собленным к новому общественному положению афинян, свиде тельствует быстрый расцвет богатства, торговли и промышленно сти. Классовый антагонизм, на котором покоились теперь обще ственные и политические учреждения, был уже не антагонизм между аристократией и простым народом, а между рабами и 1 С л ед у ет т в е р д о помнить, что крепостные отнош ения ф ео д а л ь н о й ф о р м а не в р езу л ь т а те прямого зав оев а ни я, а в след ст в ие с л о ж н е й ш и х эк ономических условий. М а р к с и Энгельс, Собр. соч., т. XVJ, ч. I, ц и и с о зд а л и с ь стр 98. Та м 3 Та м 4 Т а м 2 ж е, стр. 90. ж е, стр. 93. ж е, стр 93. свободными, между неполноправными жителями и гражда нами» Огромное значение для Греции имели связи с Северным Причерноморьем, на которые следует обратить особое внима ние при изучении истории этой страны. Через Геллеспонт во время «великой колонизации» VII в. туда устремляются пред приимчивые торговцы в поисках нажпвы, политические изгнан ники, разоренные крестьяне и ремесленники в надежде на луч шую жизнь в далеких, неведомых краях. В устьях рек, впадаю щих в Черное п Азовское моря, в Крыму были основаны десятки колоний, которые вели оживленную торговлю с могущественной скифской державой. Трудно представить Афины, Коринф, Милет и другие полисы Эллады без скифского хлеба, сушеной рыбы, шерсти, мехов и рабов. В частности, снабжение Афин хлебом всегда было одним из основных моментов, определявших внеш нюю и внутреннюю политику различных политических партий. Дешевый привозной хлеб способствует интенсификации сель ского хозяйства торговых полисов. Благосостояние многих ре месленников и торговцев основывалось на обмене с Северным Причерноморьем. Не меньше было его значение > and in the Roman era, when the export of products, raw materials and slaves from here became even more intense and spread beyond the Balkan Peninsula to the western provinces of the Roman Empire. The penetration of the Greeks to the north influenced not only the Scythians, who adopted certain features of the Hellenic culture, and the neighboring peoples, but also left a noticeable imprint on the Greek colonies that bordered the coast of the Black and Azov Seas; in their art, craft and life, in turn, the significant influence of the Scythians is reflected. Roman culture, as is known, did not leave a noticeable trace in the regions of the Northern Black Sea region. One of the main problems of the history of Rome - the question of the origin of the plebs - still remains largely unclear due to the paucity of sources. However, it is certain that, like the helots in Sparta, the plebeians appeared as a result of conquest, and not as a result of the socio-economic stratification of society. “Meanwhile, the population of the city of Rome and the Roman region, expanded due to the conquest, increased; this growth was partly due to new settlers, partly due to the population of the subjugated, predominantly Latin, districts. All these new citizens ... stood outside the old clans, "curmies and tribes and, consequently, did not form part of the populus romanus, the Roman people proper" 2. The reforms of Servius Tullius played the same role in the history of Rome as the reforms of Solon and Cleisteps in the history of Athens. This is 1 Marx and Engels, 2 Ibid., p. 10G. Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part I, p. 97. was in essence a revolution that put an end to the communal-tribal system and marked the transition to the state; “... its cause was rooted in the struggle between the plebs and the populus.” To the new, class society was determined by territorial, not tribal ties, property status, and not origin, was of primary importance in establishing political rights. “Thus, in Rome, even before the abolition of the so-called royal power, the ancient social system, based on personal blood ties, was destroyed, and in its place a new, real state system was created, based on territorial division and property differences. Public power was concentrated here in the hands of citizens who were obliged to serve military service, and was directed not only against slaves, but also against the so-called proletarians, who were not allowed to military service and were deprived of weapons. the struggle between patricians and plebeians for the expansion of the rights of the latter, for land, for limiting the arbitrariness of usurers. It becomes more complicated, especially in the II-I centuries. BC e., the mass movement of the oppressed class of slaves, to which the poor join. “The rich and the poor, the exploiters and the exploited, the full and the disenfranchised, the fierce class struggle between them - such is the picture of the slave system”3. First, the protest of the slaves, as, for example, it was in Greece in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e., was usually passive. Slaves spoiled tools and tools, ran away from their masters, which happened especially often during wars, when the forces of the slave state were distracted by external danger. Sometimes the slaves went over to the side of the enemy. So, during the Peloponnesian War, more than twenty thousand slaves after the defeat of the Athenians at Dekeley in 413 BC. e. defected to the Spartans. Subsequently, the slave-owning poleis negotiated diplomatically on measures to protect the interests of the ruling class. The same purpose was served by the means of intimidation, and a specially set up service to search for runaway slaves. However, even passive forms of struggle undermined the foundations of the economy of the slave-owning city-states, and sometimes, especially during the war, threatened their political independence. Even more dangerous for the exploiters were the open forms of protest - slave uprisings. They began in Greece in the 5th century. BC e. and most often broke out in the Peloponnese and in Sicily, where the number of rags was especially large. In essence, the political system of the Spartans and their administrative structure pursued one 1 Marks and Engssl, Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part I, p. 107. 2 Tamzhe, p. 108. 3 Stalin, Questions of Leninism, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 555. the purpose is to keep the helots in subjection and prevent any attempt at resistance on their part. And it was usually in Sparta that the slaves rebelled, for the helots in Messenia belonged to the same nationality and it was easier for them to rally against the oppressors. Such were the uprisings in 464 and 425. BC e. The first one lasted over 10 years. The poor often joined the slaves. Slave uprisings are even more characteristic for Rome, where the slave-owning system reached its highest development and, consequently, the class contradictions inherent in ancient society were especially acute. Tens and hundreds of thousands of slaves accumulated in cities and latifundia as a result of victorious wars, cruel forms of exploitation, the unbearably heavy oppression to which they were subjected, the concentration of land and wealth, the dispossession of the peasantry, unable to compete with the cheap labor of slaves - all this created prerequisites for the manifestation of protest in an open and harsh form. Not without reason, during the 2nd and 1st centuries. BC e. in Sicily, in Asia Minor, and finally, in Rome itself, slaves and the free poor often rise up. They are trying to get by force from the slave owners what they cannot get from them peacefully: freedom and the possibility of a secure existence. The uprisings of slaves and the lumpenproletariat, the civil wars of the end of the Roman Republic undermined the foundations of the existing socio-economic system and ultimately led to its death. In order to maintain their dominance, the slave owners were forced to move to a new, more perfect organization - the principate - a hidden form of monarchy, and then to an open one - domination. The progressive, world-historical significance of the uprisings of the slaves and the poor lies in the sharpening of the contradictions of the slave-owning society and, consequently, the pace of its development. At this stage, however, they did not lead to the replacement of one formation by another, more progressive one, since they were not the bearers of a new mode of production, new production relations. That is why it is wrong to talk about the revolution of slaves in the II-I centuries. BC e. “Slaves, as we know, rebelled, staged riots, started civil wars, but they could never create a conscious majority leading the struggle of parties, they could not clearly understand what goal they were going for, and even at the most revolutionary moments of history they always found themselves pawns in the hands of the ruling youth classes! Only when the development of the productive forces of ancient society paved the way for the emergence of new social relations, when the prerequisites for feudalism in the form of a colony began to take shape in the depths of the slave state, only then did slaves and colonies emerge as a revolutionary class. 375, with the State*. sweeping away on its way, albeit under the slogan of a return to the communal-tribal system, the foundations of the obsolete slave-owning formation. It was the revolution of slaves and columns that "... liquidated the slave owners and abolished the slave-owning form of exploitation of the working people" K It also made it easier for the barbarian tribes to conquer Rome - "... all the" barbarians ", united after drinking a common enemy and overthrew Rome with thunder" 2 Thus, this revolution contributed to the establishment of a more progressive society at that time - a feudal society. These introductory remarks give only a general idea of the pattern of development of slave-owning society and seek to facilitate familiarization with its main contradictions. Of course, they are far from exhausting the problems of the history of the first class formation, which the documents contained in this book should help the reader to understand. This anthology has been compiled anew and differs significantly from the Anthology on Ancient History published in 1936 under my editorship. It not only surpasses the latter in volume, but is also completely different in the composition of the texts included in it and in the principles underlying their selection, and in the method of processing documents. The Reader is intended primarily for students of historical departments of higher educational institutions and for history teachers in secondary schools. Readers should provide students with material for seminars and pro-seminars, supplement and deepen the courses they read on ancient history. It aims to make it easier for teachers to select texts and visual examples for use in classroom and extracurricular activities. When compiling it, it was decided to confine ourselves to documents reflecting only the socio-economic and political history of the countries and peoples of the ancient world. Involvement of cultural and historical monuments, given the comparatively limited volume of the anthology, would make it necessary to significantly reduce some texts and completely abandon the inclusion of others, even very valuable ones. Therefore, sources on the history of culture are supposed to be included in a special collection, which the compilers hope to publish soon. Literary works were involved only to the extent that they satisfied the principle just indicated. A significant number of documents involved appear for the first time in Russian. Many texts have been translated again, the rest are mostly checked against the originals. Before 1 Stalin, Questions of Leninism, 2 Tamzhe, p. 432. ed. 11th, p. 412. The translators set the task not only to convey the content of the monument as accurately as possible, but also to reproduce, as far as possible, its style and language features in order to give a sense of the uniqueness of the era and each people, and it goes without saying that they tried to do this without violating the structure of the Russian language (but in other cases deliberately resorting to archaisms). As for proper names and geographical names, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the generally accepted transcription was left. Particular attention in all three volumes is paid to monuments that help to link the history of the ancient world with the historical past of our homeland (Urartu, the Scythians and Cimmerians, Central Asia, the Bosporan Kingdom, the Caucasus in the Greco-Roman era). The placement of documents is based on geographical and chronological principles. New sections have been introduced in accordance with the curricula of secondary schools and historical departments of higher educational institutions: ancient historiography, the Cretan-Mycenaean society, the Northern Black Sea region from the 10th century. BC e. according to the IV century. n. e. Introductory articles to documents have been expanded. They contain basic information and give them a brief assessment and characteristics. The reader will find additions and clarifications to difficult and incomprehensible places in the comments and notes placed after each text. All sections are accompanied by short methodological instructions intended for secondary school teachers. They are arranged in the order corresponding to the presentation of the school textbook. However, the reader cannot replace the textbook. It only supplements the material contained in it and enables the teacher and student, with the help of the documents contained in it, to deepen their knowledge of ancient history. Acad. V. V. Struve. FROM THE COMPILERS OF THE FIRST VOLUME The first volume of the reader includes documents on the socio-economic history of the countries of the Ancient East, namely: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor, Urartu, Iran, India and China. It contains a large number of texts that appear for the first time in Russian translation. For example, documents on the history of the Hittites and China are almost entirely specially translated for this edition. Monuments on the history of culture are involved only insofar as they reflect the facts of political and social history. The sections "India" and "China" are presented more fully than in previous editions, because the lack of sources on the history of these countries available to the general reader is especially noticeable. Chronological dates, especially in the history of Mesopotamia, are given in accordance with the discoveries of recent years, which made it necessary to revise and correct the chronology of the III and II millennia BC. e. The Reader is intended for seminars for students of historical faculties of universities and teachers of history in secondary schools. The methodological introductions that precede individual chapters of the reader are intended to make it easier for the teacher to use a number of documents in school teaching. EGYPT AND NUBIL STUDYING THE HISTORY OF EGYPT with documents - papyruses and inscriptions on the walls of temples, tombs, c a m e n n h o n d s h o b e s, etc. side of life and ->that country. When studying the history of Egypt, as well as the history of other countries of the ancient East, in the center of attention of the teacher should be, first of all, the question of o c i a l n o - eco n o m i c h o u s s o u n and - these countries. The position of the working masses - the life of slaves, communal workers, urban christians artisans, exploitation of their n a r a n y au thority, secular and chr amoz o y z n a gy o, the facts of class struggle and resistance to oppression and yu - all these moments should be as bright and lively as possible set out in the lessons . Unfortunately, at the same time, a huge number of religious creations texts (in particular, those of the deceased) were preserved, the number of sources according to S o c p a l p o - "- about ko and o m p h c e and p o l itic h i s h o r a is not large.Therefore, in order to restore some of the historical The events and characteristics of the position of the exiloathyrus masses often have to be addressed to C u m a n d s o f r o u n t i n t a t o o o n o o o o o n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o n o o o o o o n o o n o o o n o o o o o n o o o o o n o o o o o o o o n o o o o o o o o o o n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r art u s s for illustratio n and most of the lessons on the history of Egypt. a n s, you should refer to the excerpt from the essay of the Greek eograf Strabona (L° 1). The teacher must retell it in his own words and at the same time show r e Nile current, Delta, Red sea (Arabian gulf) , M e r i d o v o oz ero. A s k e r students why the population of E g yp t was co m e d e n t a n d almost exclusively on the shores of the Nile, why was it not processed o f lands lying far from the river, and to make it easier to answer take them into account the terrain and high mountain chains, around the fringe of the n i l s and n. When speaking about the fertility of Egypt, one should always pay attention to and unequal distribution of land. It is especially necessary to emphasize the mighty priests, o f the best lands, and for clarification of this, read s t a t istic s and data from Ramses I V (No. 29), where they are mentioned not only the size of the temple estates, but also the number of workers employed in them, but also The same is due to the contributions of temple subjects who do not have their own land and are completely dependent on arbitrary priests. In addition to the priesthood, the land was received from the pharaoh and also by the military leaders. An indication of this is in the autobiography of the head of the rowers Yahms sa (L i 6). In order to clarify the organization of the Egyptian despotism and the role of the bureaucratic apparatus, we recommend referring to the life of the Egyptian we can Una (No. 6) and Khusfhora (No. 7). Some parts of them should be read in class and explained, for example, the episode with the suspension of four chiefs (from Una's inscription), excellent character exploring court intrigues, or a poetic description of a campaign against the Bedouins, in which Una is most praised for beating and plundering the Asian areas. Particular attention should be paid to the mention of the prisoners and the question should be raised by the intermediaries: why did the Egyptians need these prisoners? We must lead them to the idea that wars of conquest were inevitable for a slave-owning country that needed a free labor force . It is worth mentioning the main reward Una received from Pharaoh - a stone coffin, and explain that, from the point of view of the then Egyptians, such a gift was a mockery, because it was customary for noble and wealthy people to prepare for themselves everything necessary for a magnificent holiday long before death o r e benija. From the Huefhor inscription, one should read the list of wealth plundered in Nubia, and show the place on the map about the position of this country. Then the question must be raised: what did Pharaoh spend on the huge funds collected from the Egyptians themselves and pumped out from neighboring countries? - and instead of an answer, read out a description of the construction of the pyramid (Lg ° 5). Inviting the students to calculate for themselves how much money Cheops needed to build the building, the teacher concludes that how much damage was done to the economy of Egypt by the needlessly wasted labor force (you can ask students to calculate the approximate p yramid builder days for 30 years) . Then it is necessary to move to the position of the masses, at the expense of which Pharaoh, his nobles and officials lived. It is obligatory to cite colorful characteristics of the actors from the “Teachings of Akhtoy, the son of Duau” (especially the description of the work of a forced weaver, locked in a mask Terskaya (No. 11), as well as a scene from the story with the “eloquent peasant” (La 12), which describes the robbery and beating not R than an innocent worker. The plight of the poor and the complete lack of rights of the slaves led to a major uprising in 17C0 BC. e. In order to visually portray this uprising, it is advisable to read to the class excerpts from the “Saying of I P uver” (No. 13). At the same time, it is necessary to explain who Ipuvsr was, and to warn the students that it is necessary to be critical of his production. First, it is poetic, and it does not give a systematic and consistent arrangement of events; you should pay attention to the location of the stanzas built according to a certain pattern, the repetition of the same same exclamations, poetic oppositions, for example: “Look, the one who did not have his own property became the owner of wealth; the owners of wealth have become have-nots.” Secondly, it is especially important to emphasize the bias of the author. It is best if the students themselves draw this conclusion. To do this, you need to skillfully put &eprosy. How does Yi luwep feel about the uprising he describes? Sochu, does he stand up for the rebels? In choosing the appropriate passages, it is necessary to make the students understand that AND uwsr, any attempt on private property was a crime and considered the uprising as the result of the moral depravity of people (his complaints about the cruelty of people and their hearts, lack of brotherly love and friendship). It is necessary then to explain to the students that at all times the zeploatayurs, in fear of popular movements and called on the oppressed to mercy and humanity, and emphasize l in the name of all these appeals. When the class background of the "Saying of Ipuver" becomes clear, you can call one of the students, instruct him to read stanza by stanza "and establish what we can believe, which is a clear exaggeration f e.g., the phrase “The Nile ran bleed”), where one feels a distortion of actual events or silence. It is necessary to establish the social composition of the who became (the poor and the poor man, the one who did not have a team of bulls, that is, he had to harness himself to a plow or work the field with a hoe; a slave who was forced to water the field ; it must be clarified that this was the hardest work). an uprising was sent (couriers and princes, officials, well-to-do artisans and, for example, goldsmiths, etc.). e.) . It is important to explain the methods of struggle (refusal to pay taxes, then open rebellion, beating of the exploiters, destruction of documents in the state institutions; it is necessary to explain that, on the basis of these documents, officials collected arrears, and show the picture in the textbook “Bringing rural residents to account, not paying tax). It is very important to show students that religion always serves as a support for the ruling class, and this is especially manifested during broad national days. in and w en i j. And I was sure of the higiozen (it is necessary to read out those places where this is especially strongly felt). He is waiting for salvation from God a Ra. He is especially upset by the indifference of people to religion, the impoverishment of temples, the inability to fulfill all the prescriptions of the cult . It is necessary to provide a connection between the state power and the priesthood in Egypt and explain that the fall of the authority of Pharaoh (give a description of the assault DEORTS) should have caused a weakening of religious beliefs, a doubt in the entire existence of the gods (and the pharaoh himself was considered a god, the son of R a) . The question about the results of the uprising must be answered by the students themselves, of course, with the help of the teacher, by reading out those passages that speak of the oppressed, who themselves become workers. Owners and poor people who seize wealth, transferring private property from one day to another others, that no attempt was made to abolish private property and slavery. The student must understand that rebellion was spontaneous and did not lead to the reorganization of society on new principles, but its destructive force played a positive role, shaking the foundations of the workers were of the elch system, although the rebels themselves did not realize this. In connection with social upheavals, it is also necessary to study foreign policy. Our Hyksos invasion of Egypt was a success to a large extent as a result of the uprising of the poor and slaves, weakening the country. In describing this invasion and the ensuing struggle, the teacher may use excerpts from AAanephon (No. he and Kamosa (No. 15) and the ograf and y o u s o o u o u t h m o s s (JVg 16), paraphrasing them in your own words. It is necessary to draw the attention of the disciples to the division of Egypt. The Hyksos are established in the Delta, and the south is soon gaining independence. To oust the Hyksos, the river fleet is used, and combined land and water battles take place (No. 16). Hyksos who are captured are converted into slavery (a number of examples in No. 16). Next, you should move on to the aggressive policy of the pharaohs in the New Kingdom. It is necessary to introduce students to different types threaders characterizing their foreign policy; with the annals of the pharaohs (J4 ^ ]6): having a strictly official character, systematically setting out the course of hostilities, and with a fairy tale, the plot of which Serves as a real event, the description of which is embellished with poetic fiction (No. 20). All the time it is necessary to focus the attention of students on the question of the causes of wars, their purpose and significance, to point out that the Egyptian annals and ->: h do not think to hide the predatory nature of the * F a r a onov. It is important to emphasize that every slave-owning society needs new slaves and this does not fugitive aggressive foreign policy. It is necessary to clearly and visibly find out who benefited from such a policy. The ordinary peasant and craftsman, enlisted in the army and shedding blood for the glory of the pharaoh, did not gain anything from the victorious expeditions to Asia and Nubia. This is clearly seen from school teachings (No. 3-0), which it is desirable to read out to the class in its entirety, and at the same time to recall that the vast majority of military booty fell into the hands of the priests. va, military commander "and some (examples from No. 16), senior officials. It should be shown on the map the arena of military operations, outline the boundaries of the Hittite kingdom, which became the main enemy of Egypt in the XV - XIII centuries, touch upon the issues of military equipment, using illustrations from a textbook or atlas (chariot battle, assault on a fortress), as well as individual expressions from the annals of Thutmose III, x characterizing methods of waging war (for example, the siege of Megildo). wars are ready to come to an agreement when they are threatened by internal enemies - the enslaved peoples. with the Hittite king Khagtushil (No. 2 7). It is important to read out the place where it is said about mutual assistance in the suppression of uprisings. Yesterday's enemies become friends and when it turns out to be profitable, and by joint efforts they suppress their subjects. It is very important to stop at the organization of the state apparatus in Egypt. Abundant material for this is given by prescriptions from the top official (No. 2 1). In this document, the centralization of the Egyptian state is very embossed. All the threads of government and judgment converge in the hands of one official, whom the pharaoh trusts. The main tasks of the state apparatus are to rob their own people (note references on the collection of taxes) and the organization of the irrigation system (monitoring the health of canals and dams, etc.) in addition to the third function, which was introduced to the students by the previous documents (robbery of the factory ev anna y x stran). To characterize foreign trade, it is necessary to draw on the description of the expedition of Hatshepsut to a distant Punt (now Somalia) and list those lights that were brought from this country to Egypt, drawing attention to the fact that they were almost exclusively luxury items needed for the queen, the priest about in and nobility (No. 17). In conclusion, we must show the disciples that the power of Egypt and its prosperity was relatively short-lived and fragile. The end of the domination of the Egyptian pharaohs in Phoenicia and Palestine cannot be traced from The Journey of Unuamon. This document is especially interesting for us because it was discovered by a Russian scientist (V.S. Golenishchev) and is kept in Moscow ( in the State Museum of Fine Arts). It is necessary to retell the detailed content of it in your own words and and compare the situation in Western Asia in the 11th century (the time of compiling this document) with the situation at the beginning of the 15th century. (time T at m about sa). It is necessary to invite their own students to answer the question why the power of the Egyptian state turned out to be so short-lived. The collapse of the large-scale slave-owning dorzhchva was completed with the help of external enemies (Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, Persians). As an example, one can cite excerpts from a colorful and detailed inscription of Piankh, the Nubian king, who conquered Egypt in the 8th century. d o n. e. (No. 3 4). It is especially necessary to emphasize the fragmentation of Egypt during this period, the presence in each city of its own independent king (in the Piankhi inscription this is about trazhenno with full distinctness). The disintegration of Egypt into separate small states and the impoverishment of the masses of the people weakened the country and made its victims o y alien conquerors. No. 1. THE NILE AND ITS FLOODS (Strabo, Geography, XVII, 1, 3-5.) Strabo is one of the most prominent geographers of antiquity. Born in the city of Amasya (Asia Minor) in the 60s. d o n. e., died er in 24 AD. e. In 24 BC. e. in the retinue of the Roman governor of Egypt, Elius Galla, visited this country and traveled from Alexander and to the border of Nub and. In addition, according to him, he visited the lands from Armenia to Sardinia and from the Black Sea to Ethiopia. About countries that Strabo did not visit, he borrowed information from other writers. 0 including one of the eminent scientists of the Alexandrian school, Eratosthenes from Cyrene (2 75 - 195 BC) , the author of many works on mathematics, philosophy, chronology, etc. The most famous work of the latter is "Geography" in 3 books in which he laid the foundation for the study of this science. It was often used by Strabo. Strab himself wrote a work, also under the title "Geography", in 17 books, where he described all the known antiquities of the country. This essay is an extremely important historical source, since it contains a huge amount of factual material. ...3. It is necessary, however, to say more, and first about those pertaining to Egypt, in order to move from the more familiar to the more remote. And this country [Egypt], and the country adjacent to it, and the country of the Ethiopians located behind it, receive from the Nile some common properties, for during the rise of the water the river gives them water, making habitable only that part of them that is covered [with water] during floods, lying above and further from the current, leaving on both sides uninhabited and deserted due to lack of water. However, the Nile does not flow through all of Ethiopia, and it does not flow alone, and not in a straight line, and through a land not well populated: in Egypt, it flows alone through the whole country and in a straight line, starting from a small threshold beyond Siena 1 and Elephantine 2, which are the border between Egypt and Ethiopia, before flowing into the sea. Indeed, the Ethiopians live for the most part as nomads3, poor because of the poverty of the country and the immoderation of the climate and remoteness from us; the Egyptians, on the other hand, fell to the opposite, for they live from the very beginning a state and cultural life and settled in well-known places, so that their orders are known. The Egyptians have a good reputation, because they are considered to enjoy the prosperity of their country in a worthy manner by dividing it wisely and caring for it. Having chosen a king, they divided the mass of the people and called some warriors, others farmers, and still others priests; sacred affairs are subject to the care of the priests, and human affairs are to the care of the rest; of the latter, some were engaged in military affairs, while others were engaged in peaceful affairs - agriculture and crafts, and it was from them that taxes came to the king. The priests were engaged in philosophy and astronomy and were royal interlocutors. The country was originally divided into nomes 4, and the Thebaid5 had ten nomes, ten - the region in the Delta and sixteen - the region lying in the middle; some say that there were as many nomes as there are courts in the labyrinth 6, and these latter were [not] less than thirty [six]; the nomes again had other divisions, for the majority was divided into toparchies, which in turn were divided into parts, while the smallest divisions were individual fields. This exact and petty division was necessary because of the constant confusion of the boundaries that the Nile produces during floods, reducing and increasing individual parts, changing their forms and destroying all kinds of signs by which the alien differs from its own; therefore new measurements were required. Geometry is said to have originated from here, just as the art of counting and arithmetic arose among the Phoenicians through trade. Just as the entire population and all the people in each nome were divided into three parts, so the country was divided into three equal parts. The work on the river is as varied as it is necessary to conquer nature with constant labor. By nature itself, the country bears many fruits, and thanks to irrigation, even more; naturally. a greater rise of the river irrigates more land, but diligence sometimes made up for what nature denied, so that even with a smaller rise of water, as much land is irrigated as with a larger one thanks to canals and dams; so, in the time before Petronius,7 the greatest fertility and rise of water was when the Nile rose fourteen cubits, when famine came eight [cubits]; when he [Petronius] ruled the country, and the height of the Nile only reached twelve cubits, the fertility was greatest, and even when one day the height of the water reached only eight [cubits], no one felt hungry. 4. The Nile flows from the borders of Ethiopia in a straight line north to the so-called Delta area. Then it, dividing at the upper reaches, as Plato says8, turns this area, as it were, into the top of a triangle. The sides of the triangle form arms that divide in two directions, descending to the sea, on the right side towards Peluoium9, on the left towards Canopus 10 and the neighboring so-called Heraclea11, while the base is the coast between Pelusium and Herakleion. Thus, by the course of two branches and the sea, an island is cut off, which, by the similarity of its form, is called the Delta; however, the place at the summit is also called by the same name, because it is the beginning of the figure mentioned, and the village located there is also called the Delta. So, the Nile [has] these two mouths, of which one is called Pelusian, the other is Canopic and Heracleian; between them [there are] five other mouths worthy of mention, smaller ones still more, for many branches, branching from the very beginning over the whole island, formed many streams and islands, so that the whole island became navigable, since channels were dug in a large number which are so easily navigated that some use clay boats. So the whole island is about three thousand stades in circumference, and is called, together with the opposite river area of the Delta, the Lower Country; it is all hidden during the floods of the Nile and, with the exception of dwellings, becomes the sea; the latter are erected on natural hills or embankments, so that significant towns and villages have the appearance of islands from a distance. For more than forty days the water stays high in the summer until it begins to subside a little; the same is the case with the rise [of water]; within sixty days the plain is finally exposed and dried up; the faster the drying occurs, the sooner plowing and sowing occurs, and most likely where it is hotter. The land above the Delta is irrigated in the same way; moreover, the river flows for about four thousand stades in a straight direction along the same channel, except if somewhere an island comes across, of which the most significant is that which contains the Heracleian nome, or if somewhere the course of a river is diverted by a canal into some large lake or area which it can irrigate, as, [for example], is the case with the [canal] irrigating Arsinoiskin and Lake Merida 12, and [channels] pouring into Mareotis 13 In short, the irrigated region is only that part of Egypt which lies on both sides of the Nile, starting from the borders of Ethiopia and reaching the top of the Delta, and the continuous extension of the inhabited land only in some places reaches three hundred stadia. Thus, except for significant deviations, the river looks like an elongated belt. This form is given to the river valley of which I speak, and to the whole country, by the mountains descending on both sides from the environs of Syene to the Egyptian Sea 14: how far they extend and how far apart they are from each other, how much the river itself narrows and overflows. and in various ways changes the shape of the inhabited land; beyond the mountains the country is for the most part uninhabited. 5. Ancient writers, mostly on the basis of conjectures (who lived later as eyewitnesses), asserted that the Nile is flooded from the summer rains that fall in upper Ethiopia and mainly in the extreme mountains, and that as the rains stop, the flood also gradually stops. This is obvious mainly to those who sail along the Arabian Gulf to the quinpamon-bearing country 15, and to those who are sent to hunt elephants ... So, the ancients called Egypt only that part of the country that is inhabited and irrigated by the Nile - beginning from the environs of Siena to the sea; later writers, up to our time, added to the East almost the entire space between the Arabian Gulf 16 and the Nile, from the western regions the country to the Avases and on the coast from the Kanop mouth to Katabatma 17 and the region of the Cyrenians 18. Perev. O. V. K u d r I in c: in a. 1 Siena - the Greek name of the Egyptian fortress and Suanu, located on the first threshold - modern ss ya n. 2 Elefantina - "an island on the Nile near the first threshold against Siena and the city located on it. Egyptian name - "Abu" - "elephant", because through this city the elephant bone was brought to Egypt from Central Africa. 3 Nomads - pastoral nomadic tribes. 4 Nom - the Greek name of the regions into which Egypt was divided. According to Egyptian documents, they were drunk 42. about the family of Thebes. The labyrinth was called by the Greeks the constructed pharaoh of the XII dynasty Amen emhet III (1 8 4 9 - 1801 BC). e.) a temple in the Fayum moasis, located west of the Nile Valley. 7 Petronius - "the Roman governor of Egypt yri and emperor Octavian Augustus in the 20s BC. 8 Plato - a famous Greek philosopher - idealist (4 2 7 - 3 4 7 BC) 9 Pelusium - fortified city in the north -Eastern border of Egypt 10 Canopy - city at the mouth of the western branch of the Nile Canopa 12 Nome and lakes located in the Fayum lake 13 Mareotida - lakes in Lower Egypt, near Al oxandria, formed by the Kanops branch of the Nile 14 Egyptian Sea - Mediterranean Sea 15 Kinna mononosnosnoe country - the south-western extremity of the Arabian Peninsula, modern Yemen. 16 Arabian Gulf - Red Sea. 17 Katabatma is a fortress and a port on the Mediterranean Sea. The westernmost point of Egypt in the Ptolemic era. Modern - A to ab ah -A with so lon. 18 Inhabitants of the Greek colony of Cyrene on the northern coast of Africa. No. 2. THE NATURE OF NUBIA (Strabo, Geography, 1, 2, 25.) ... Ethiopia lies in a straight line directly behind Egypt, is in a similar relationship to the Nile, but has a different nature of the terrain. For it is both narrow and long, and subject to floods. What is outside the flooded [part] is both deserted and waterless and capable of insignificant settlement both in the direction of the east and in the direction of the west. P erev. O.V. No. 3. FROM THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ANNALES e” (accompanied by the museum in Palermo, Italy, where it is kept). The inscription is very difficult to understand due to the archaic nature of the language and writing and the fragmentation of the text. It is carved on both sides of a diorite slab, from which an insignificant fragment of 43.5 cmU \ X 25 cm has survived. Starting from the second row, each rectangle into which the lines are divided, with Contains a brief record of the major events that took place at that time. In the space between the lines, and at the top of each row, stood the name of the king. On the front side of the stele were inscribed the names of the pre-dynastic kings (upper row) and I-III dynasties. In all the rest, ending with the V dynasty, were on the reverse side. As has already been pointed out, the text is very fragmentary, and only a few passages lend themselves to a coherent translation. Below are excerpts that list the events of individual years during the reign of Snofru (the last pharaoh of the III din st and i), Shepseskafa (the last pharaoh of the IV dynasty) and Uyerkaf (the first pharaoh Dynasty V), who ruled in the first quarter of the III millennium: the construction of ships and temples, donations to temples, the establishment of holidays, hiking, etc. Translated from: H. Sch afer, Ein B r uc hstu ck a lt a g y p t is c h e r A n n alen . A b h a n d lu n g e n der K o n ig lic h e n p r e u s s i s c h e n A k a d e m ie der Wi s s e n sc h aften . R^erlin, 1902. The beginning of the break: the list of events of 10 or P years is missing. Year X +1. [Birth] of both children of the king of Lower Egypt1. Year X+2. A building of wood-measures of a ship of one hundred cubits “Adoration of both lands” and 60 sixteen [cubits?] royal baroques. Devastation of the country of Nehsi 2. Delivery of 7,000 prisoners, men and women, 200,000 heads of large and small livestock 3. Construction of the wall of the Southern and Northern countries [under the name]: fortresses (?) Snefru. Delivery of 40 ships with (?) Cedar trees. Rise of the Nile: 2 cubits, 2 fingers. Construction of 35 fortresses ........... Construction of the ship "Adoration of both lands" from cedar wood and two ships of a hundred cubits from wood - meter. Reckoning 7th time 4. Rise of the Nile: 5 cubits, 1 palm, 1 palei. Year X+4. The construction of [buildings?] "High is the crown of Sneferu at the South Gate" and "High is the crown of Sneferu at the North Gate." Production of doors for the royal palace from cedar wood. Reckoning 8th time 5. Rise of the Nile: 2 cubits, 2 palms, 23/4 fingers. (Further destroyed.) Pharaoh Year 1. Shepseskaf. Appearance of the king of Upper Egypt. Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt. Connection of both lands. Bypass [around] the walls. Holiday - Seshed 6. Birth of both Upuats7. The king worships the gods who united both lands... Choosing a place for the pyramid "Sky of Shepseskaf 8". (Further, except for an indication of the height of the rise of the Nile, only the lower parts of two columns of the text have been preserved.) Pharaoh Userkaf. Year X +2. The king of Upper and Lower Egypt Userkaf donated (literally: made) as his monument for: Spirits of Heliopolis 9 20 sacrificial rations10 every... holiday, arable land 36 cut (arur) p... in... the land of Userkaf. Gods (sanctuaries of the sun god...) Sep-ra of arable land 24 cut... 2 bulls and 2 geese daily. [To God] Ra - arable land 44 is cut in the fields of the Sever (goddess) Hathor - arable land 44 is cut in the butts of the North. To the gods of the "House of Horus" Jeba Herut (?) of arable land 54 cut. Construction of his chapel (Mountain) in the temple of Buto in the Xois nome 12. Sen 15 - arable land 2 cut. building his temple. [Goddess] Nekhsbt 14 in the "Sacred Palace" Yug1510 sacrificial rations daily. 1 in the Gods of the "Sacred Palace" Nega 48 sacrificial rations daily. 3-n times the reckoning of livestock. Rise of the Nile: 4 cubits, 2!/2 fingers. Transl. / / . S. To sch Nelso on. 1 These deities are mentioned in the Pyramid Texts. This is obviously a religious holiday. 2 In the era of the Old Kingdom, “Nehsi” meant the tribes that lived near the southern border of Egypt, in contrast to "Aa m u" - a s and a there. Subsequently, non-Xsin were generally referred to as residents of southern countries, including Negroes. 3 Figures may be exaggerated. A IMPLIED PROPERTIES FOR TAX Establishment. These calculations were usually made every two years. From this we can conclude that there is a lack of records relating to the first 10-11 years of the reign of Snofru 5 First mentioned n e on calculus and property for two years in a row. 6 Literally: bandages. 7 Literally: openers of the way. According to one of the legends, they "victoriously captured and deprived of the lands", being the commanders of Osiris in his struggle with his brother - rival Seth. Depicted in the form of a wolf. 8 T o - there is a place where the deceased king will stay together with the gods. From this it follows that the pharaoh immediately after accession to the throne began to build his own tomb. 9 City in the southern part of the Delta, near Memphis. One of the ancient cities of Egypt. The center of the cult of the sun god Ra. 10 Literally: bread, beer, cookies. 11 Unit of area 2735 sq. m. meters. 12 One of the ancient cities of Egypt, the center of the cult of the god Horus. He was in the 6th nome of Lower Egypt. 13 Possibly the sanctuary of Anubis, the god of the dead. The patron goddess of Upper Egypt, revered in the form of a kite. 15 The patron goddess of Lower Egypt, revered in the form of a snake. 16 The name of one of the two sanctuaries of Lower Egypt, located in Buto. No. 4. FROM METHEN'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY Methen's autobiography is important not only as one of the first documents of its kind, which received wide circulation an ance by the end of the Old Kingdom, but also as a historical source, preserved from the first centuries of the existence of the Egyptian state, so meager written monuments. Metena lived at the end of the reign of the III dynasty - the beginning of the reign of the IV dynasty (c. 2900 BC). In the hieroglyphic inscription carved in his tomb, he told about his service career and lists the property accumulated during his lifetime , which makes it possible to clarify the structures of the state apparatus and to determine some features of the economic and social structure of the time. It is characteristic that the main source of the well-being of this nobleman, who left the service class, was the pharaoh's compliments, a gift to his large estates. Translated from the publication: K. S eth e , U rk u n d en d es Leipzig, 1903. U rk u n d en dcs a g y p ti s c h e n A ile r t u m s . Abt. IV. INHERITANCE RECEIVED BY Alten Reiches, METENUS He was given the property of his father Inpuemankh, a judge and a scribe: there was (neither) grain, (nor) any household property, but there were people and small livestock. [CARRIER RA METENA.] He was made the first scribe of the food warehouses (?), the head of the property of the food warehouses (?), he was made ... (he) was the nomarch of the Ox nome 1 after (was) the judge of the Ox nome. .. he was made the head of all the royal linen, he was made the ruler of the settlements of Perked 2 ... he was made the nomarch of Dep 3, the ruler of the great fortification of Perm 2 and Persepus, the nomarch of Sais 4 ... PROPERTY ACCUMULATED METENUS Was acquired by him. (i.e. Methen). 200 arura fields with numerous royal people: a daily sacrifice (for) the sanctuary of 100 loaves from the temple of the Soul, the royal mother Enmaathap;. a house 200 cubits long and 200 cubits wide, built, equipped: beautiful trees were planted, a huge pond was made in it, fig trees and vines were planted. It is written here, as on a royal document; their names are here, as on the royal document. Trees have been planted and the vineyard is huge, they make a lot of wine there. He made a vineyard of two thousand aruras within the walls; trees have been planted. Pz ev. and M. Lur'e. 1st Nome of Lower Egypt (Koissky). 2 Name of the locality. 3 Later became part of the b-th nome of Lower Egypt; during these times, a was an independent nome 4 of the 5th nome of Lower Egypt (Saissky). N L1> 5. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PYRAMIDS (I "rodot. History, II, 124-125.) Herodorod c. 4H4 BC in Galikar Nassa (Asia Minor), d. c. 425 B.C. Odot made a number of distant journeys: he visited Eishet (c. 445 BC), where he went up the Nile to El Fantine, was in Tyre, Syria, Palestine, Northern Arabia, in Babylon, apparently in the vicinity of Susa, and perhaps in Ecbatana; traveled along the northern coasts of Pontus and Colchis , Thrace, Macedonia, etc. "History" of Herodotus consists of 9 books, named after nine muses (the division was introduced later), and includes a description of almost everything known then to the ancient world. guides, Greek merchants, who gave us and mem not always correct about the explanation. The Egyptian and Babylonian priests, who were the monopoly holders of the knowledge of that time, avoided communication with the "barbarians", which for them were foreigners. Therefore, Herod had to use stories, folk and legends, walking and anokdots, etc. This explains numerous false information, in particular the complete distortion of the historical perspective, which is characteristic of his work. At the same time, he conscientiously described everything personally seen by him, constantly referring to the monuments he examined, and quotes I have some inscriptions. The "History" also preserved excerpts from the writings of other travelers and historians that have not come down to us. Thus, with a critical attitude to the work of Herod, with a careful comparison of it with genuine documents and archeological and monuments , from it you can extract extremely valuable information, which allows you to rightly consider "History" as an indispensable and most important source for history countries of the Ancient East. The following passage is the first description of the pyramids. At the same time, he confirms that even in the 5th c. d o n. e., despite the two and a half thousand years that have elapsed since the reign of Cheops, memories of the oppression and disasters in which this pharaoh continued to be stored in the people's memory defeated Egypt, forcing the whole country to work on the construction of its tomb. The description of the process of constructing the pyramid, as shown by the latest research, is close to reality. 124. It was said that the king of Rhampsinites 1 in Egypt had good laws in all respects, and Egypt prospered greatly; Cheops, who reigned over them [the Egyptians], plunged the country into all possible troubles, for he first locked up all the sanctuaries and forbade them [the Egyptians] to offer sacrifices, and then forced all the Egyptians to work for him. Some were ordered, as they say, from the quarries in the Arabian mountains to carry stones to the Nile; after the stones had been brought across the river in boats, he ordered others to receive them and drag them to the ridge called the Libyan. A hundred thousand people worked continuously every three months. Time passed, as they say, ten years, while the people languished over the construction of the road along which the stones were dragged, the work is only a little easier than the construction of the pyramid, as it seems to me (for its length is five stages2, the width is ten orgies3, the height where it is highest - eight orgies, and it is made of polished stone with images of living beings carved on it); and now it took ten years to build this road and underground rooms in that hill on which the pyramids stand; he [Cheops] made these premises for himself a tomb on the island, drawing a canal from the Nile. The construction of the pyramid itself took, as they say, twenty years; each of its sides has eight pletras 4, moreover, it itself is quadrangular, and the same height; it was made of polished stone, fitted to each other in the best possible way; none of the stones is less than thirty feet 5. 125. The pyramid itself is made as follows: with the help of ledges, which some call battlements, others altars. When it was first made like this, the remaining stones were lifted up by machines made from short pieces of wood; the stone was raised from the ground to the first row of ledges; when the stone fell into place, it was placed on the second car, which stood on the first row of ledges; from here to the second row, the stone was lifted with the help of another machine; for how many rows of ledges there were, so many machines were there, or else there was one and the same machine, easily moved from one row to another when they wanted to lift a stone; so, we talked about both ways, exactly as they say. First, the upper parts of the pyramid were finished, then the parts that carried them, the last ones were finished on its ground and the lowest ones that lie on the ground. In the Egyptian inscription inscribed on the pyramid, it is indicated how much was spent on radishes, onions and garlic for workers; and as I well remember, the translator who read the writings told me that sixteen hundred talents of silver were spent. 6 If this is the case, how much more could have been spent on the iron with which they worked, and food and clothes for the workers? If the said time was spent on these works, then, as I think, a considerable time also passed in breaking stones and dragging them and digging under the ground. Transl. O.V. 1 Ramses IV (on the former death III) - pharaoh of the XX dynasty (1 2 0 4 - 1180 BC). Herodotus erroneously considered Cheops (Egypt. Khuf y) due to insufficient knowledge of the history of Egypt from the pre-s and s period - pharaoh of the IV dynasty (c. 2800 BC) - the successor of R a m ses IV 2 S t a d i y = 184.97 meters. 3 Orgies = 1.85 meters. 4 Pletra = 3 0 8 3 meters. 5 According to modern measurements, the size of the pyramid of Cheops during construction was: the length of the base. . . . 233 meters height.........................146.5 meters volume....... .................... 2 5 2 1 0 0 0 cu. meters. At present, these sizes have somewhat decreased due to the influence of natural factors and the destruction caused by people over thousands of years. The pyramid was built of yellowish sandstone, quarried in the surroundings, and was lined with white stone, delivered from the quarries of Mokattam and Turra, located on the east bank of the Nile, south of modern Cairo. 6 There were no similar inscriptions on the pyramid. Uninformed guides or interpreters probably considered the lists of victims brought to support the cult of the dead fara ono in and their loved ones, for the lists of products "used up for the maintenance of workers. No. 6. LIFE DESCRIPTION OF THE GREAT UNA Hieroglyphic inscription on a slab found in Abydos in Upper Egypt and now stored her time at the Cairo Museum. The biography gives a diverse picture of the administrative, military and court life and construction activities of the pharaoh at the end of the Ancient ego of the Kingdom (pharaohs of the VI dynasty of Teti, Piopi I and Merenra) . The description of the victorious return of the troops is given in the form of a military song. Best Edition: K S et h e , U rk u n d en d es Alten Reich es, L e ip z ig , 1903, pp. 9 3-110. in the palace, the guardian of Nekhen \ the head of Nekheb2, the only friend [of the pharaoh], honored by Osiris, who is at the head of the dead, Una (says): THE BEGINNING OF SERVICE ACTIVITY [I was a young man], girded with a belt [of maturity] with the majesty of Teti3, and my position was the head of the shna house 4. I was the caretaker of the palace henti and ushe 5. ... the elder of the palace under Majesty Piopi 6. His Majesty elevated me to the rank of friend and caretaker of the priests of the city at his pyramid. APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES When my position was ..., his [majesty appointed me! judge and the mouth of Nekhen 7, for he relied on me more than on any of his other servants. I conducted the interrogation alone with the chief judge - the supreme dignitary in the case of any secret matter ... on behalf of the king, the royal women's house and 6 supreme judicial presences, since his majesty relied on me more than on any other of his dignitaries, more than any other of his nobles, more than any of his servants. THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TOMB OF UNA BY THE PHAROAH I asked the majesty of my master that a limestone coffin be delivered to me from the [Memphis quarries] Ra-au8. His Majesty ordered that the [dignitary] treasurer of god9 crossed the [Nile] with a party of workers of the captain of the ship (? ), his assistant (?), to deliver this coffin to me from Ra-au. He (the coffin) arrived with him at the residence on a large cargo ship, along with [his] lid, a tombstone with a niche, ruit I), two gemex 11 and one sats,2. The like has never been done to any (other) servant, since I enjoyed the favor of his majesty, since I was pleasing to his majesty, since his majesty relied on me. APPOINTMENT AS THE CHIEF OF THE PALACE HENTI U-SHE When I was a judge and through the mouth of Nekhen, His Majesty appointed me the only friend and chief of the palace Khentiu-she. I removed 4 chiefs of the palace Khentiu-she, who were there. I acted in such a way that I won the approval of his majesty, organizing the guard, preparing the way for the king and organizing the camp. I did everything in such a way that His Majesty praised me exceedingly for it. PROCESSES AGAINST THE WOMEN OF THE Tsar URETHETES (?) A case was conducted in the royal women's house against the wife of the king Urethetes (?) in secret. His Majesty ordered me to go down (?) to conduct an interrogation alone, and there was not a single chief judge-supreme dignitary, not a single [other] dignitary, except me alone, since I enjoyed favor and was pleasing to His Majesty and because his majesty relied on me. It was I who kept the record alone with one judge and the mouth of Nekhen, and my position was [only] the head of the palace Khentyu-she. Never before had a man of my position listened to the secret business of the royal women's house, but his majesty ordered me to listen, since I enjoyed the favor of his majesty more than his other dignitary, more than any other of his nobles, more than any other of his servants. PREPARATIONS FOR WAR WITH THE BEDOUINS And His Majesty repulsed the Asian Bedouins. His Majesty took an army of many tens of thousands throughout Upper Egypt, from Elephantine in the south to the Aphroditepolis region in the north, among the Nubians of Irchet, the Nubians of Medja, the Nubians of Ima, the Nubians of Wawat, the Nubians of Kaau, and in the land of the Libyans. YOU ARE GOING ON A CAMPAIGN UNDER UNA His Majesty sent me at the head of this army; local princes, treasurers of the king of Upper Egypt, the only friends of the palace, heads and mayors of Upper and Lower Egypt, friends, chiefs of translators, chiefs of the priests of Upper and Lower Egypt and heads of [departments] hes-per stood at the head of the detachments of the upper and lower Egyptian villages and villages and the Nubians of these countries. It was I who was in charge of them, and my position was [only] the head of the palace Khentiu-she, in view of ... my position, so that none of them harmed the other, so that none of them took away bread and sandals from traveler, so that none of them took away clothes in any village, so that none of them took away a single goat from a single person. I brought them to the North Island, to the Gate of Ihotep and the district [of Horus] of the just, being in this position ... I was informed of the number (of people) of these detachments - (it) was never reported to any other servant. THE RETURN OF THE VICTORIOUS TROOP This army returned safely, having turned around the country of the Bedouins. This army returned safely, having ruined the country of the Bedouins. This army returned safely, demolishing her fortresses. This army returned safely, cutting down its fig trees and grapes. This army returned safely, having kindled a fire in all of them ... This army returned safely, having killed many tens of thousands of detachments in it. This army returned safely, [capturing] many prisoners in it [detachments]. His Majesty praised me for this exceedingly revolt of the vanquished His Majesty sent me five times to lead [this] army and pacify the country of the Bedouins, every time they rebelled, with the help (?) of these detachments. I acted in such a way that [His] Majesty praised me [for]. TRAVELING BY SEA AND LAND OF THE COUNTRY TO THE COUNTRY OF THE BEDOUINS "GAZELLS IN THE SOUTHERN NOSE", NORTH PALESTINE It was reported that rebels ... among these foreigners on the Gazelle Nose, 3. I crossed over in ships with these detachments and landed on the high spurs of the mountain north of the Bedouin country, and a whole half of this army [went] by land. I came and took them all. All the rebels were killed among them. APPOINTMENT AS THE PRINCIPAL OF UPPER EGYPT When I was a palace attendant16 and a wearer of [Pharaoh's] sandals, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Merenra, 17 my master, who may live forever, appointed me local prince and commander of Upper Egypt from Elephantine in the south to the Aphroditepolis region in the north because I enjoyed the favor of his majesty, because I was pleasing to his majesty, because his majesty relied on me. When I was an accountant and a wearer of sandals, his majesty praised me for my vigilance and for the guard I organized at the campsite, more than any other of his dignitaries, more than any of his nobles, more than any other of his servants. Never before had this position been given to any other servant. I was the ruler of Upper Egypt for his joy, so that no one in him did harm to another. I did all the work; I imposed everything that was due in favor of the residence, here in Upper Egypt, twice, and all the duties that were due in favor of the residence, here in Upper Egypt, twice. I performed the duties of a dignitary exemplary here in Upper Egypt. This has never been done before here in Upper Egypt. I did everything so that his majesty praised me for that. EXPEDITION TO THE NUBIAN AND ELEPHANTINA QUARRY IN SOUTH GE EGYPTA IBHAT His Majesty sent me to Ibhat18 to deliver the sarcophagus "The Chest of the Living" along with its lid and the precious and luxurious top for the pyramid : "Merepra appears and is merciful," mistress. His Majesty sent me to Elephantine to deliver a granite slab with a niche along with its sats and granite doors and ruit, and to deliver granite doors and sats to the upper chamber of the pyramid "Merenra appears and is merciful," mistress. They sailed with me down the Nile to the pyramid "Merenra is and is merciful" on 6 cargo and 3 transport ships for 8 months (?) and 3 ... during one expedition. Never at any time did they visit Ibhat and Elephantine in one expedition. And whatever was ordered by his majesty, I did everything, according to everything that his majesty commanded about that (?). EXPEDITION TO THE ALABASTER STONES IN CENTRAL EGYPT KHATNUB (His Majesty sent me to Hatnub 19 to deliver a large sacrificial slab of Hatpub alabaster. I lowered this slab broken in Hatnub for him) in only 17 days 20. I sent it down the Nile in this cargo ship - I built him a cargo ship of acacia 60 cubits long and 30 cubits wide, and the construction took only 17 days - in the 3rd summer month, despite the fact that the water did not cover [more ] shoals. I moored safely at the pyramid "Merepra appears and is merciful." Everything was carried out by me, according to the order given by the majesty of my master. SECOND EXPEDITION I K N I C O L S I M P O R O G A M IN THE SOUTH OF E GYPT A AND IN N U B I YU Z O S T O I THE PYRAMID PYRAMID His Majesty sent me to dig 5 canals in Upper Egypt and build 3 freighters and 4 transport ships from the Akania of Uauat. At the same time, the rulers of Irchet and Medja supplied a tree for them. I completed everything in one year. They were launched and loaded to capacity with granite [on the way] to the pyramid "Merenra is and is merciful." I did, further, ... for the palace through all these 5 channels, since the power of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Merenra, who may live forever, is majestic, ... and more impressive than all the gods, since all carried out according to the order given to them. CONCLUSION I was truly a man loved by my father and praised by my mother, ... enjoying the favor of my brothers, a local prince, a good leader of Upper Egypt, honored by Osiris, Una. 1 The oldest residence of the kings of Upper Egypt; was located in the places of the later Hierakonpol. 2 The ancient capital of Upper Egypt, modern El-Kab. It was located opposite Nekhenan on the opposite bank of the Nile. 3 Pharaoh Teti II (Atoti) - the first pharaoh of the VI dynasty (middle of the XXVI century BC) I Possibly, workshops or barns (sk l and d s). d’ Possibly, tenants who sat on the royal lands. 6 Pharaoh Piopi I - the third pharaoh of the VI dynasty. 7 Judicial position. 8 Quarry near Memphis, modern. Turra. 9 Duty of a dignitary. 10 Untranslatable word - some part of the door. II Also some part of the door, possibly sashes or jambs. 12 Parts of the burial slab - niches. 13 The 22nd nome of Upper Egypt, located in the south of modern Cairo. m The indicated places are not subject to exact determination; Most likely, they were located on the eastern border of the Delta, near the Sinai Peninsula. 15 Probably, the edge of the Karmel mountain range is in true Palestine. ,g> Court position. The meaning of this title is unknown. 17 Farahon of the 6th Dynasty Merenra I - father of Piopi II - ruled c. end of the 26th century d o n. e. 18 Location not established. Ibhat in Nubia was above the second threshold. In the era of the Ancient Kingdom of the Egyptians, they did not penetrate farther than Northern Nubia. 19 Stone quarries where alabaster was mined in the mountains near the capital of Akhenaten - Akhetaton (modern T ell - el - Amarn a - northern M a n f a l u t a) . 20 I mean, from the mountains, where the quarries were, to the bank of the Nile. No. 7. AUTOBIOPHY OF KHUEFKHOR Biography of Elefantinsk o nomarch Khuefkhor, a contemporary of the pharaohs of the 6th dynasty Merenr I and Piopi II (c. 2500 BC), inscribed on his tomb, carved in the rocks near the first threshold, is one of the most important texts of the end of the Ancient Kingdom. The tomb was opened in 1891. Huefkhor tells of three journeys he made on the orders of the pharaohs to Nubiya, and concludes A copy of the letter sent to him on behalf of Pepi II, which is one of the oldest Egyptian documents of its kind known to us. The biography of Huefhoran not only characterizes the foreign policy of Egypt in the south and clarifies the list of products delivered from there, but significantly add and expand information about N ubi and i s