Deep comparative and superlative. Degrees of comparison. Norms of using the degree of comparison of adjectives

Adjective [ˈadʒɪktɪv] or adjective in English language Is a part of speech that denotes a feature of an object / person / phenomenon. Perhaps, after the verb and the noun, it is the most used of all tenses. By their meaning, adjectives are divided into relative and qualitative. The latter differ in that they can vary in the degree of comparison. The degrees of comparison of adjectives in the English language are formed, obeying certain rules, which will be discussed today.

There are three degrees of comparison of adjectives in English. All of them are similar to Russian degrees, and therefore this topic should not be taken hard. Let's consider each degree separately, having studied the characteristics, education and methods of use.

Positive degree [ˈpɒzɪtɪv dɪˈɡriː] or positive degree is the easiest. The English language has made it easier for you, and therefore there is no need to complete this degree. You just need to take an English adjective in its simple dictionary form and use the word in the sentence. Since when we use an adjective in this form, we do not compare it to anything, the positive degree is often considered separately, outside the topic of comparison. In any case, you need to know about it. Examples of a positive degree:

But for comparison, comparative and superlative degrees are used. These degrees have more nuances that need to be analyzed in more detail.

Comparative degree of adjectives in English

Comparative degree is used to compare characteristics / attributes of two or more objects and persons. Perhaps such an explanation did not clarify anything for you, but this topic is characteristic of both English and Russian, so if you compare this form with the Russian comparative degree, everything will become much clearer:

We are sure that you no longer have questions about what constitutes a comparative degree. But how do you get this degree in English? For this, two comparative forms are used:

If a word consists of one or two syllables, it appears comparatively with -er endings:

However, when adding -er, certain nuances must be taken into account:

If the adjective ends in -e, this letter is omitted:

But the ending -y changes to -i:

Exceptions are words that have a vowel before -y:

If the adjective consists of three or more syllables, the degree is formed by adding the words more (more) and less (less):

Comparison of adjectives in English - adjective superlative

Superlative degree or superlative form in English is used to show that an object or person in comparison with others is "the best", that is, superior to all others. The excellent form is also compared with Russian adjectives to the same degree. For example:

There are also two options for forming this adjective form. Before each of them a certain is put, since adjectives in the superlative degree imply a specific, special object or person:

The ending -est is added to an adjective with one or two syllables:

Positive degree	Superlative degree
large (large)	the largest (largest)
great (great)	the greatest
pretty (beautiful)	the prettiest (the most beautiful)
dear (dear)	the dearest
funny	the funniest
short (short)	the shortest (shortest)
long (long)	the longest (longest)

Note that the end append rules work with this form as well.

If an adjective has 3 or more syllables, then the words (the) most (the most / most) and (the) least (least) are attached to it:

Despite the rules, some two-syllable adjectives in comparative and excellent forms, however, can be formed with both –er / –est and more - less / most - least. For example, these include words such as:

Adjective	comparative		Superlative degree
	-er	more / less	-est	most / least
clever	cleverer	more (less) clever	cleverest	the most (least) clever
simple (simple)	simpler	more (less) simple	simplest	the most (least) simple
stupid	stupider	more (less) stupid	stupidest	the most (least) stupid
quiet	quieter	more (less) quiet	quietest	the most (least) quiet
common	commoner	more (less) common	commonest	the most (least) common
polite (polite)	politer	more (less) polite	politest	the most (least) polite
narrow	narrower	more (less) narrow	narrowest	the most (least) narrow
angry (angry)	angrier	more (less) angry	angriest	the most (least) angry
cruel (cruel)	crueler	more (less) cruel	cruelest	the most (least) cruel
sour	sourer	more (less) sour	sourest	the most (least) sour
gentle	gentler	more (less) gentle	gentlest	the most (least) gentle
friendly (friendly)	friendlier	more (less) friendly	friendliest	the most (least) friendly
pleasant (pleasant)	pleasanter	more (less) pleasant	pleasantest	the most (least) pleasant
able (capable)	abler	more (less) able	ablest	the most (least) able

The more / less and most / least forms are now increasingly preferred.

There are also three-syllable exception adjectives that form degrees with –er and –est. These include words that, with the help of prefixes, change the original meaning of a short adjective to the opposite. For example, adjectives: happy (happy) - unhappy (unhappy), tidy (neat) - untidy (untidy), kind (kind) - unkind (unkind), lucky (lucky) - unlucky (unlucky), safe (reliable) - unsafe (unreliable):

Positive degree	comparative	Superlative degree
unhappy	unhappier	unhappiest
untidy	untidier	untidiest
unkind	unkinder	unkindest
unlucky	unluckier	unluckiest
unsafe	unsafer	unsafest

In addition, there are exception words, all 3 forms of which are significantly different from each other and do not obey the standard education, just like English irregular verbs. Such words of the English language just need to be remembered. Study them according to the table:

Positive degree	comparative	Superlative degree

good (good)	better	the best
bad	worse	the worst
little (small)	less	the least (least)
many / much	more	the most (greatest)
far (distant about the place)	farther (more distant)	the farthest (the farthest)
far (distant about a place or time)	further (further)	the furthest (the farthest)
old (old about people and things)	older	the oldest (the oldest)
old (eldest in the family)	elder	the eldest (oldest)
late (late about time)	later (later)	the latest (latest)
late (last in order)	the latter (second of two)	the last (last)
near (close in distance)	nearer (closer)	the nearest (nearest)
near (close in order or time)	nearer (closer)	the next (next)

Compound adjectives in English that contain the aforementioned exceptions can be constructed in both ways:

The first option, however, is more preferable.

In other cases, compound adjectives use the second way of forming comparative and superlative degrees:

Using the degree of comparison of adjectives in English

We talked about the rules for the formation of degrees, it remains only to understand how to use these adjectives in sentences.

When using English comparative adjectives, the sentence uses the conjunction than (than) to introduce a comparison. Examples:

Animals are more honest than humans; you always can understand their intentions.	Animals are more honest than people. You can always understand their intentions.
Cars are faster than bicycles.	Cars are faster than bicycles.
Nothing can be worse than betrayal.	Nothing can be worse than betrayal.
It's better to try and fail than to fail to try.	Better to try and fail than not try at all.
There is no other name than yours in my head.	There are no other names in my head but yours.
Elizabeth made it a thousand times better than John but I decided not to hurt him and said nothing.	Elizabeth did it a thousand times better than John, but I decided not to upset him and didn't say anything to him.
The black costume suits you better than the blue one.	A black suit suits you better than a blue one.
George won the fight because he was more prepared than his rival.	George won the fight because he was more prepared than his opponent.

The adverb rather can be added to the sentence, or rather to the word more. Rather more is commonly used for comparisons meaning "better ... rather than ..." or "better ... than ...":

Sometimes the subject being compared may be omitted if the context implies it, or if the speaker knows that the other person will understand it. Suggestions as examples:

If you want to emphasize that the first person / subject is much (much) better, more beautiful, and so on, the sentence should contain the word much, which is placed before the degree:

Examine the following table for examples:

The comparative degree is also used in three constructs:

The comparative degree, the comparative degree. In simple terms, this construction is similar to the sentences "what ..., so ...". Table with examples for clarity:

The more, the better.	The bigger, the better.
The less you know, the better you sleep.	The less you know the better you sleep.
The older you become, the more responsibilities you should take.	The older you get, the more responsibilities you need to take on.
The faster you run, the harder it is to catch.	The faster you run, the harder it is to catch (you).
The more you procrastinate, the less time you have.	The more you save for later, the less time you have.
The more dialects you know, the better you can communicate with people.	The more dialects you know, the better you can communicate with people.
The more you work, the more you get, remember this.	Remember, the more you work, the more you get.
The more I learn, the more I realize how much I don’t know.	The more I know, the more I realize that I know nothing.

More positive degree than positive degree. The phrases "rather ... than" are analogous. Such a construction is possible when we compare the characteristics of the same object / person.

You can also use "more than" in a row without adding words between them. This construction has the meaning "more than". These two words can be followed by an adjective and / or a noun, both of these names are valid:

For superlatives, no additional conjunctions need to be used. Such adjectives in a sentence are used in a standard way instead of a positive degree:

As in Russian, in such sentences the option is not "the most", but "one of the most":

Two degrees of comparison can fit in one sentence at once:

Today we looked at the features of the degrees of comparison of adjectives in English. Having memorized the rules of their formation, you will be able to use these degrees in speech without any difficulty. In order to consolidate the material, return to the article, revise the tables with examples and make your own proposals. And most importantly - learn English with pleasure, because if you are interested in the process, English grammar will be given to you much faster and easier.

Among the norms inherent in adjectives, the greatest difficulties are usually caused by the formation of certain forms of comparative and superlative degrees of qualitative adjectives and the use of these forms in speech.

When forming a form of a comparative degree, the following patterns should be taken into account.

1. Comparative forms are most often formed using the suffixes -ee / -e:

beautiful - more beautiful / more beautiful; strong - stronger / stronger.

Note, what forms more, less, more, more, earlier do not have variants with the -e suffix (variants earlier, me are inadmissible in literary speech!).

2. If the base of the adjective ends in g, k, x, then when forming the comparative degree, the suffix -e is used (with alternating consonants):

light - lighter, tighter - tighter, dry - drier.

The same suffix with alternating consonants is used in the formation of the comparative degree of individual adjectives with a stem on d, t, st, sk, zk:

rich - rich, young - younger, simple - easy, close - close, smooth - smooth, liquid - liquid, short - shorter, low - lower, rare - dir e, narrow - already e.

Using forms like simpler, younger is a gross mistake. At the same time, in common parlance, the suffix -e can receive a more regular expression than in literary language(for example, weaker, weaker), but they are unacceptable in literary speech!

3. With the help of the suffix -che, forms of a comparative degree are formed in only a few adjectives:

early - earlier, old - older, thin - thinner, bitter - bitter, distant - farther, long - longer.

4. A number of adjectives form a comparative degree from another root:

good is better, bad is worse(not allowed: worse!), small, small - less.

5. The meaning of comparison can be expressed both with the help of special suffixes, and in a descriptive way - with the help of words more / less (comparative degree) and words most / most ( superlative degree):

nicer, more difficult; the best, the most difficult.

Totally unacceptable use two ways of expressing comparison at the same time: words more / less or most / most in combination with an adjective in a comparative or superlative degree! This error is very common in speech:

She was sadder today than yesterday; He is the greatest physicist in the world.

The following sentences will be grammatically correct:

She was sadder today than yesterday; She was sadder today than yesterday; He is the greatest physicist in the world; He is the greatest physicist in the world.

Exception make up the forms: the best, the worst.

Similar requirements apply to the use of comparative and superlative qualitative adverbs:

It is more difficult for her than for you; It's harder for her than for you.

It should be borne in mind that not all qualitative adjectives are capable of forming degrees of comparison using the appropriate suffixes. Do not form such word forms:

immortal, brilliant, close, combat, sick(about a human), stormy, superior, eternal, possible, strong-willed, outstanding, heroic, deaf(about a human), naked, proud, old, distant, business, cruel, familiar, oblique, short, crooked(about a human), dead(not alive), peaceful, mighty, unknown, lower, general, excellent, advanced, positive, last, constant, similar, right(fair, containing the truth), empty(about the container: not filled with anything), developed, early, ragged, timid, blind, controversial, urgent, predatory, gloomy, colored, young and etc.

Some of these adjectives are not able to be used in a comparative degree due to the specifics of their meaning (for example, one cannot be more or less immortal, more or less naked). Others could theoretically form a comparative degree, but due to their formal characteristics, they do not have such a form or are of little use. In the latter case, in informal speech, in some combinations, you can use a descriptive way of expressing the degree of comparison:

more strong-willed, more businesslike, more cruel.

Note that there are several conditions to consider when using the comparative and superlative forms in speech.

1. The comparative adjective is used in combination with the genitive case of the name ( He is prettier than his sister) or in association with the union how (Melons are sweeter than watermelons). These forms point to a comparison object. Without a dependent name indicating the object of comparison, comparative adjectives can be used:

when the attribute of one object is compared with the same attribute of another object, known from the context:

I am familiar with all the collections of his poems. The latest collection is clearly weaker;

when the attribute of an object is compared with the same attribute in relation to the previous or subsequent state:

The memory of the sun in the heart is weakening, the grass turns yellow(A. Akhmatova).

2. A similar dependence can be traced when using adjectives in an excellent degree: it is necessary to indicate the range of objects, persons, from which the one that is endowed with the same quality to the greatest extent stands out:

He was the hardest working in our family; He was the best among us.

In addition, the use of superlatives is not recommended if matching objects or faces is impossible or incorrect.

So, the sentence is incorrect: A. Blok is the most talented poet of Russia. Each of the great Russian poets (A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, etc.) is unique in its own way, and here it is unacceptable to assign to places, as is done, for example, in sports. If necessary, you can use constructions like: A. Blok is one of the most talented poets in Russia.

It should be noted that in some cases, such uses are intentional and associated with certain, for example, political goals. An example is the statement of I.V. Stalin about the poet V.V. Mayakovsky: "Mayakovsky was and remains the best, the most talented the poet of our Soviet era ".

Adjectives and adverbs in many languages of the world have degrees of comparison. In English, these are Positive Degree, Comparative Degree and Superlative degrees, in Polish - rywny, wyższy, najwyższy, in French - le positif, le comparatif, le superlatif. The Russian language was no exception, it has a positive, comparative and superlative degree of adjectives. How do they differ and what are their forms?

Comparison: types, table

The ability to form degrees of comparison is possessed by adjectives and adverbs formed from them.

There are three of them:

Positive.
Comparative.
Excellent.

Each of them expresses a different level of possession of an object or a special certain quality.

For example: resourceful boy ( positive), but he can be more resourceful ( comparative), and in a certain life situation even become the most resourceful ( excellent).

What adjectives can be used to form degrees of comparison

As you know, all adjectives of the Russian language are divided into several categories.

Qualitative - means signs that an object or a living creature can have in different degrees: sweet, sweeter, sweetest.
Relative - they call the signs of an object or living being in their relation to circumstances, actions or other personalities, things: a telephone call, a wooden building.
Possessive - indicate that something belongs to someone: Pushkin's stanza, paternal parting words.

Only from the first category can a comparative and superlative degree of adjectives be formed (charming - more charming, the most charming), since one cannot say: "a more wooden building" or "the most Pushkin stanza".

Also, adverbs that come from the qualitative category of adjectives can form degrees of comparison: cheerful - cheerful (more cheerful).

Comparative degree of adjectives in Russian

Before moving on to the consideration of the comparative degree, it is worth mentioning a little about the positive. This is the name of the initial degree of comparison (boring). In fact, it is considered a degree of comparison only formally. But the next is the comparative degree of the adjective (boring, more boring). It serves to show that a certain object or person has this quality in more / less quantity than someone / something else. For example: "This tea is stronger (stronger) than the one we drank yesterday."

Information on forms of comparative degree

In the above example, you can see that the comparative degree in Russian can be formed in the following ways: using suffixes or by adding an additional word (in this example, it is "more"). It turns out that two forms of the comparative degree of adjectives in the Russian language can be distinguished: simple and compound or, as it is sometimes called, complex.

Methods for the formation of a simple form

There are several ways to form it.

With the help of the suffixes -ee, -ee, -e, -che, added to the stem: cheerful - more cheerful. However, it is worth remembering that if the suffixes of the comparative degree of adjectives -е, -che are used, then the consonants in the root of the word may alternate, and the suffixes -к, -ок, -ек may be abolished altogether. For example: narrow - narrower, sonorous - louder.
Sometimes a simple form can be formed by adding all the same -ee, -ee, -e, -che, as well as the prefix po. For example: soon - quickly, quickly - quickly. Adjectives formed in this way, as a rule, are the lot of colloquial speech.
Sometimes the comparative degree of adjectives in Russian is formed using a different word stem: bad - worse.

It is worth remembering that not every high-quality adjective can form a simple form. It so happened historically that from some words it is simply impossible to form it. For example, from such adjectives as "tall" or "business". After all, one cannot say: "taller" or "more efficient".

Unlike a positive one, a simple comparative degree has no ending and does not change. For example, the adjective “light” changes in gender and number: “light”, “light”, “light”, etc. In addition, it declines in cases. But the comparative degree of the adjective - "lighter", is unchanged.

In this form, words, as a rule, perform the syntactic role of a predicate: “Words of love - sweeter than honey", And in some cases - definitions:" Cook the jam sweeter. "

Complex form

Unlike a simple one, it is formed not with the help of suffixes or prefixes, but by the way of adding the words "more" or "less" to the adjective in a positive degree. For example: "Rembrandt was a more brilliant artist than most of his contemporaries, but he was truly appreciated years after his death."

Adjectives in a complex form are declined in cases, change in numbers and, accordingly, in gender, while "more" and "less" remain unchanged. For example: more powerful (powerful, powerful, powerful).

Both in a simple form and in a compound form, comparative adjectives in a sentence play the role of predicates or definitions: "Their relationship was closer and more elevated than that of anyone around."

Having reviewed the information about the comparative degree, it is now worthwhile to move on to the study of the excellent. And it will help you not to forget how the comparative degree of adjectives is formed - the table.

It summarizes all the information about simple and complex forms and their formation.

Superlative Comparison at a Glance

It serves to demonstrate that a certain object or living being is absolutely superior to any others in a certain quality, which is represented in their highest measure.

For example: "The house of the third pig was the most durable and the wolf could not destroy it."

A little about superlative forms

Knowledge of how the simple and complex comparative degree of adjectives is formed will help to deal with this topic. In the case of the superlative degree, both of its forms bear similar names: simple and composite (complex) and are formed according to the corresponding principle.

They are formed according to the same principle:

Simple is formed by adding suffixes -eish, -aish to the stem: caring - caring. Similarly to the comparative one, the excellent suffix of the stem -k may also drop out: low, lowest. A word formed using a simple superlative form is inflected in cases and changes in numbers and gender. At the same time, the comparative degree of an adjective in a simple form is devoid of this property. For example: "light". As mentioned above, in the comparative form it is invariably “lighter”. But in the superlative degree - "the lightest", it is capable of changing: "the lightest", "the lightest".
The compound (complex) form is formed by adding the words "most", "least" or "most" ("most", "most", "most") to the adjective in a positive degree. For example: the brightest, the least entertaining, the funniest. In some cases, the comparative degree of the adjective plus the word "all" can also participate in the formation. For example: "This girl coped with the task faster than anyone in the class." As in the case of the comparative compound form, the adjective in the excellent changes in the same categories. And the additional words: "most" or "least" remain unchanged: "The wolf ran the shortest way to Grandmother's house and outstripped Little Red Riding Hood." However, the "most" also changes: "The wolf ran the shortest way to Grandmother's house and outstripped Little Red Riding Hood."

As for the syntactic role, adjectives in this degree, as a rule, act as predicates: "The most amazing journey." Less often - definitions: "It was a story about an amazing journey." And in a complex form, they most often fulfill the role of definitions: "He was smarter than everyone in school."

Superlative and comparative adjectives: exercises to consolidate knowledge

To better remember all the material presented, it is worth practicing by performing a few fairly simple exercises.

By itself, the topic of comparative degrees of adjectives is pretty easy. However, in order to avoid mistakes, it is worth remembering the basic rules, especially since in most European languages adjectives also have 3 degrees of comparison. Therefore, having figured out what they are in Russian, you can safely take on the study of the grammar of foreign languages.

ONLY QUALITATIVE APPENDICES HAVE DEGREES OF COMPARISON!

Qualitative adjectives differ in that they can denote a sign in varying degrees of its manifestation ( large - larger - largest). These forms are called degrees of comparison:

Comparative

Excellent

The paradigm of degrees of comparison also includes the adjective from which forms of degrees of comparison are formed. The semantic basis of the degrees of comparison is a quantitative assessment of the measure of a feature. In the paradigm of degrees of comparison, the original adjective is called the form of the positive degree.

Comparative degree (comparative) - denotes a quality that is in any object to a greater extent than in another, the name of which is put in the form of gender case or name case; the latter is preceded by a comparative union How(the truth is more expensive than gold).

Superlative degree (superlative) - denotes the highest degree of quality in any subject in comparison with another: favorite writer; inflected like ordinary adjectives.

Comparative and superlative degrees can be expressed in simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical) forms.

comparative

The simple form of the comparative degree does not change in gender, number and case; and therefore it must be able to distinguish it from the form of the comparative degree of the adverb. If a word of this type is syntactically related to noun, then compare the degree of the adjective, if connected with a verb, then compare the degree of the adverb ( oak is stronger than birch- an addendum; he gripped the handle tighter- adverb)

Forms of a comparative degree tend to be used in a position with a ligament, i.e. in the role of a predicate, but it can also be a definition.

Formed from the stem of the original adjective using suffixes - her (s) - bolder,whiter(productive way) or -E, -che - more expensive, richer(unproductive way).

From adjectives based on k, r, x and some words based on d, t, st comparative degree formed by suffix –E(while the final consonant stems alternate with sibilants) ( loud - louder, quiet - quieter, steep - cooler). In adjectives on -OK and -To the generating stem is truncated, the remaining final consonant alternates with a hissing or paired soft ( high - higher, low - lower).

Comparative forms with suffix –Yes single ( far - farther, early - earlier, long - longer).

From three adjectives, the form is formed in the supplementary way ( small - less, good - better, bad - worse).

Forms of a comparative degree are not formed from adjectives that call signs that do not change in degrees. Sometimes they are not formed in accordance with the usus, and not the meaning ( decrepit, alien, scanty).

The complex form of degrees of comparison is formed by the addition of the word more... Moreover, such combinations can be formed with a short form ( faster, more red).

Superlative degree

The simple form of the superlative degree has features in its meaning: in addition to the above-mentioned basic meaning of the superiority of quality in an object compared to other objects, this form can denote the highest, limiting degree of quality in any object without comparison with others. In other words, it can mean an irrespectively high degree of quality: worst enemy, kindest creature.

The simple form is formed by attaching a suffix -Eish (-eish). At the same time, it is not formed from all adjectives, usually it is absent in those lexemes from which the form of the comparative degree is not formed. It may also be absent in those forms that have the form of a comparative degree. These are quality adjectives with suffixes -Ast-, -ist, as well as many words with suffixes - liv-, -chiv-, -k-(narrow - narrower, hairy - hairy, silent - more silent).

A complex form is formed by a combination of a quality adjective and a word most... It is not related to lexical restrictions: the reddest, the kindest, the narrowest.

For adjectives with suffixes –Owat - (- evat-) no superlative form is formed because the value of the incomplete characteristic is incompatible with the value of the high degree of the characteristic ( deafest, most deafish).

The superlative shape denotes the highest quality. In contrast to the comparative degree, the forms of the superlative degree cannot express a comparative assessment of the degree of a feature in the same object and in two objects.

Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison: positive(original form), comparative(com parative) and excellent(superlative). Grammar category degrees of comparison acts as a grammatical core of the functional-semantic category of graduality, the meaning of which is realized by different-level linguistic means. The significance of the degrees of comparison is that the comparative degree conveys the intensity of a trait in comparison with the same trait in another subject .

Scientific discussion

From Aristotle to the present, words that convey gradual value (measure, degree, value of a sign, process, phenomenon, object), have been the object of study by many researchers 3. M. V. Lomonosov in his "Russian grammar" considered the degree of comparison of the category subjective assessment... Russian grammarians of the 19th century these aspects brought closer together. Two categories of quality grades have been established - non-relative(oldish, old, oldyonk) and relative(oldest of ..., one older than the other) .

Without naming the presented phenomena by the term graduality, which is used by modern scientists, linguists have described a number of linguistic phenomena that correspond to the very essence of graduality. All theories and descriptions of various quality grades with historical point of view represented an important perspective in the study of graduality. Since the 15th century. in Russian there are all sorts of forms with a graduated meaning.

Attribute, procedural justice, objectivity in a certain way (to a greater or lesser extent) correlate with the concepts degree, measure... Most of the words of the modern Russian language express variable and measurable ( quality) sign: degree of comparison (adjectives); formations with augmentation and diminutive suffixes (nouns); methods of verbal action with the meaning of measure; gradual oppositions in the lexical system of the language; gradational syntactic constructions; the use of gradation as a stylistic method. As graded and graduated units, such words are considered that, due to their semantic and grammatical features, are able to express one or another degree (measure) of manifestation of a feature: our passions. "

Graduality- functional-semantic category with meaning measures, degree of manifestation sign, process, phenomenon, state, expressed by different-level linguistic means. Comparative degree ( comparative) denotes such a variable feature that can manifest itself in an object to a greater or lesser extent than in another object. Wed: This question more difficultthe previous one. – This question more difficult,than the previous one. Excellent degree ( superlative) denotes such a variable feature that manifests itself in an object to the greatest or least degree than in another object: it hardestthe question of the topic being studied. - It the most difficultthe question of the topic being studied.

Forms of comparative and superlative degrees can be simple(synthetic) and complex(analytical).

Simple the form comparative degree has indicators - suffixes -e (s), -e: high – highe(alternation s // w at the root of the word + truncation of the stem - suffix -ok-), strong – strongher (strong-her) etc. From adjectives good, bad, small Supplementary forms of a comparative degree are formed: good is better, bad is worse etc. Simple superlative is formed by attaching suffixes -eish-, - aish-: tallaishuh, strongeishui etc. For example: Leo Tolstoy is a geniuseishui fromwriters of the XX century.

Complex the form comparative degree is formed by additional words more / less+ positive degree: more (less)high (kind).

Complex the form excellent degree is formed in several ways:

a) using an additional (auxiliary) word (particles) most: most difficult, highest etc.;
b) using additional (auxiliary) words most, least: least difficult etc.;
c) the combination "simple form of comparative degree + pronoun in the genitive case Total(or of all) ": the most difficult (of all) and etc.;
d) the combination "amplifying particle all + simple form of comparative degree ": The pain in my heart became allhottere(M. Sholokhov).

In a sentence, a simple form usually performs the function predicate and the composite can be like predicate, so and definition. Wed: She was more beautifulthan he imagined her(L. Tolstoy).

The complex form of comparative and superlative degrees is formed from almost all qualitative adjectives. The simple form has limitations.

Forms of a simple comparative degree are not formed from adjectives:

- with an absolute qualitative value: bald, blind, lame, dumb, barefoot, deaf etc.;
- based on [ NS"], [f]: beggar, stout and etc.;
- with a suffix -sk-: friendscoh, enemyscui etc.;
- from some verbal adjectives with a suffix -k-: padTouh, moveTooh, shatToui and so on;
- with a suffix -ov - / - ev-: troubleovoh, boevOh etc.;
- with a suffix -l-: unyloh, mouthlth etc.;
- from individual adjectives that stand apart for reasons of a historical nature, for example proud, young and etc.

Simple superlatives are not formed from adjectives:

- with a suffix -sk-: friendscuh, tragicallyscoh, enemyscui etc.;
- with a suffix -k-: bastardTooh thunderTooh, ringingToui etc.;
- with a suffix -ow - / - eu-: rowovoh, strevoh boevOh and etc.;
- from adjectives proud, young etc.

Excellent degree has two kinds of meaning:

1) the manifestation of a sign in the highest degree compared to other items ( superlative): oldest ofworkers etc.;
2) expression extreme degree manifestation of the sign regardless of other objects (regardless of the large measure of the sign - elative): Got into stupidestposition, It raresthappening etc.

V grammatical complex forms comparative and excellent degrees are no different from positive(original) degree. Simple forms of comparative degree are unchangeable, compare: House (houses) (pine (s), building (s)) above,how...

Syntactic(syntagmatic) conditions the use of morphological heterogeneous formations in the Russian language is characterized by the following features.

1. Expressing the relative degree of the presence of a trait, adjective in comparative or excellent degree is used as a gradual syntactic term - predicate or definitions. Wed:

So, reasoning, Selifan wandered at last into the most distant abstraction. Maybe this prompted him another, more substantial reason, the matter more serious, close to the heart ... But the reader will learn about all this gradually and in due time, if only he has the patience to read the proposed story, a very long one, which afterwards has to expand wider and more spaciously as it approaches the end that crowns the case (N. Gogol).

These are complex, analytical formations. The word is used as an exponent more(comparative) and words most or most(superlatively). Superlative exponent most stylistically neutral, and the word most is of a book character. Wed:

Most typical cases; most simple question. - Disdaining the prudent comfort of castling, he strove to create the most unexpected, the most bizarre ratio of figures (V. Nabokov).

2. Adjectives in comparative degrees serving as definitions can express the result of a subjective assessment.

The shade of the meaning of a subjective assessment can be conveyed by lexical means, for example: elderly person (as opposed to old). Combined with the word more the adjective is used in both full and short forms: this question is more important: important(compound form); this question is more important: more important(simple form). Short form more important conveys a state conceivable in time: At the moment this question more important.

Typical for the Russian language is a simple (synthetic) form of a comparative degree in -he, -e, -e. It is homonymous with the form of the comparative degree of the adverb. Wed: he behaves modestly(adv.); his demands are more modest(adj.).

Excellent The degree of an adjective, acting as a nominal predicate, has three forms, similar to those of a comparative degree: this question is the most (important): most (important): most important of all (of all). If the superlative expresses quality inanimate or animate object, then preference is given to the forms "most + full form adjective ":

This suitcase the heaviest; His job the best.- Vronsky is one of the sons of Count Kirill Ivanovich Vronsky and one of the best samples of gilded youth (L. Tolstoy).

3. Comparative degree in function predicate predicate used in special comparative constructions in which the comparison object is expressed in one way or another. It is formed in two ways:
1) the compound of the simple form of the comparative degree with the genitive comparison: Wilson is more important than any other bird(V. Mayakovsky);
2) the compound of the composite form of the comparative degree, consisting of the word more and the short form of the positive degree, and the union than: Wilson is more important than any other bird.

The first method should be considered the most common, because the use of "forms of a comparative degree is not limited to simple morphological rules. The types of formation and functioning of degrees of comparison in Russian should be studied and assimilated in close connection with the syntactic and semantic conditions of their use."

All qualitative-evaluative and most qualitative adjectives form degrees of comparison, expressing different degrees of quality. But in some cases they do not have degrees of comparison due to their semantics: adjectives such as dumb, barefoot etc. denote absolute quality and do not logically admit of comparative or superlative degree. It is important to note that comparative and superlative degrees denote different meanings as opposed to meaning positive degree:

"She is at two meetings at once ..."

(V. Mayakovsky)

Forms of comparative degree with a prefix more (smarter, more fun, cheaper etc.), acting as a predicate, acquire the shade of a "softened" comparative degree: He is younger than me; He will be smarter than all of us. -

And the man, from he was quick-witted,

He set off on a bear,

He planted a spear in it

What higher navel, lower liver

(meaning "slightly higher / lower").
(A. Pushkin)

Forms of adjectives in -ee, -e, -she with prefix on- indicate the predominance of some quality in one of the compared objects: (the book) is more interesting; (boy) smarter etc.

Combined with the genitive of the attributive pronouns Total or of all(which, but in essence, became formants, indicators of the superlative degree) the comparative degree becomes superb. Such stable combinations carry the meaning of the highest degree of quality through comparative opposition anything other objects in the aggregate and not from the same category. This is a complex form of elative that does not fit with the forms on -eish-, -eish-. For example:

Most of all he was struck by the fact that from Monday he will be Luzhin (V. Nabokov); And the geese shouted, / disappearing in the sky, / What is the most precious thing / The dear side ... (M. Isakovsky).

All three degrees represent a gradation series: rough: rougher: roughest; coarse: coarser: coarse etc.

In russian language comparative degree is often used in the meaning excellent. Distinguishes this use genitive case of the second element with a comparative degree. It can also be used for superlatives: best of all, richest. In some cases, you may notice a "limited" superlative value - better (...) all others except one (two ...).

Based on the system of degrees of comparison by Otto Jespersen, which excludes the superlative degree from consideration as a kind of comparative, let us single out the graduation steps:

1.Superiority (>) more dangerous (better) than ...
2. Equality(=) with just as dangerous (good) as ...
3. Lower degree(less dangerous (good) than ... etc.

It's obvious that the first and the third steps closely related, since

in both cases is expressed inequality. There are two ways of expression with the opposite meaning, which make it possible to reverse the relationship of the first and third steps: worse than = less good than. Based on this, you can install the following equality: older than = less young than. Wed:

Levin himself did not remember his mother, and his only sister was older than him, so that in the Shtcherbatskys' house, for the first time, he saw the very environment of the old noble, educated and honest family, which he was deprived of by the death of his father and mother (L. Tolstoy).

Comparison Sister Levin is older than him does not mean that Sister is old and the comparative degree can therefore mean lesser degree, than positive in expression The sister is old. Similarly, the proposal Sister older than Levin says nothing about Levin's old age; on old age Levin will be implied if we add the adverb yet: The sister is even older than Levin. We see that a similar use of the word yet is not self-evident.

When the step is negated superiority (1) Sister is not as old as Levin we get the value either equality(2) or lower degree(3). When the step is negated equality(2) we get the value lower degree (3): less old than; younger than. Wed: And as old as V. An objection to this statement would be the following: Oh no, not as old as B, but much older.

There are designs proportional match, in which the determinant represents a time span but is not explicitly expressed. In such sentences, the following meanings and features of their expression come to light:

a) repetition of the comparative form:

It was becoming darker and darker (= the longer it has continued, the darker became). He became more and more impatient; Heartache getting hotter(M. Sholokhov);

b) formant all in combination with the comparative degree forms an excellent degree: He said everything is illegible.

V.V. Vinogradov pointed out that adjectives on - the best / - the best can have three meanings in modern Russian:

1) irrespective of large measure (limiting degree) of a sign (elative meaning):

He is the smartest man; The weather is wonderful. - In his hearts he began to tear out leaves and flowers and sneezed from the smallest dust (V. Nabokov).

Some superlative forms break away from the paradigm and act in the meaning of elative, i.e. in the meaning of an absolutely greater degree of quality: greatest scientist(does not mean the greatest) ,

2) excellent degree: the most faithful of friends, the greatest poet,
3) comparative degrees (meaning almost lost in modern Russian, but leaving traces in phraseology): upon closer inspection.

The most common is the use of forms on - the very best in an elative meaning. Such forms in free combinations are of an evaluative nature. Wed:

I found myself in the stupidest position; This is the rarest case, etc. - It smartest, most decent and talented man (N. Gogol); But nothing of the kind happened, he listened calmly, and when his father, who was trying to pick up l most experienced, attractive(= "evaluative character") details, said, among other things, that he, as an adult, would be called by his last name, his son blushed, blinked, leaned back on the pillow, opening his mouth and shaking his head ... (V. Nabokov).

Grade-estimated value of the superlative degree of the form on - the very best realized by a combination with the preposition from:genius of (musicians), oldest of (workers) etc. For example:

And as in my wagon ... there was a bed with clothes and linen, then in my misfortune I considered myself happiest of mortals (A. Pushkin).

Elative meaning is very close to the category of subjective evaluation. Elative forms express gradual meaning and serve to express the ultimate degree of quality without indicating a relationship to other objects: The smallest specks of dust were in the air; Found a rare specimen.

Consequently, the formal means of expressing the meanings of measure and degree (graduation) in the field of qualitative adjectives (and qualitative adverbs) is morphological the level concerning the properties of morphemes and cases of analytical education. As a grammatical kernel graduation the corresponding category appears degrees of comparison - comparative, superlativeandelative.

Cm.: Kolesnikova S.M. Semantics of graduality and ways of expressing it in the modern Russian language. M., 1998; Her. Functional-semantic category of graduation in the modern Russian language. M., 2010.S. 78-86.
See additional: Falev I.A. On the question of the degrees of comparison in the modern Russian language // Language and thinking. Issue 9. M .; L. 1940; Nikulin A.S. Comparison Degrees in Modern Russian. M .; L., 1937; Yu.P. Knyazev On the semantics of degrees of comparison of adjectives // Scientific notes of the Tartu state. un-that. V. 524: Problems of the intrastructural functional description of the language. Tartu, 1980; Kolesnikova S.M. The degree of comparison of adjectives and the intensity of the attribute expressed by them // Russian language at school. 1998. No. 5.
Wed: Galich G.G. Gradual characteristics of qualitative adjectives, verbs and nouns of the modern German language: author. dis .... cand. philol. sciences. L., 1981; Kharitonchik Z.A. Turansky I.I. Semantic category of intensity in modern English. M., 1990; L. A. Novikov Antonymy in Russian. M., 1973; Arutyunova N. D. Human language and world. M., 1999; Apresyan Yu.D. Lexical semantics. Synonymous language means. M., 1974; Wolf E. M. Functional semantics of evaluation. M., 1985; Ubin I. I. Lexical means of expressing intensity (based on the Russian and English languages): author. dis .... cand. philol. sciences. M., 1974; Turansky I. I. Semantic category of intensity in English. M., 1990; Vorotnikov Yu. L. Quality degrees in modern Russian. M., 1999; Norman V. Yu. Graduation in Russian // Qnantitat und Graduierungals kognitiv-semantische Kategorien. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz verlg, 2001. C. 381-403. Sapir E. Graduation: semantic research // New in foreign linguistics. M., 1986.S. 43; Halina N.V. Graduation category in word and text. Barnaul, 1993; Krzhizhkova E. Quantitative determination of adjectives in Russian (lexico-syntactic + analysis) // Syntax and Norm. M., 1974.S. 122-144; Bolinger D. Degree words. Paris: Mouton, 1972; Studia gramatyezne bulgarsko-polskie. T. 3: Ilosc, gradaeja, osoba. Wroclaw, 1989; Kolesnikova S. M. Gradality: linguistic description (based on the Russian language) // Akademiai Kiado. Budapest, 2011; Repashi D., Sekei G. On graduality in a comparative aspect // Vestnik MGOU. Ser. "Russian Philology". Issue 5. M., 2010.S. 110-117; Kolesnikova S.M. Functional-semantic category of graduality in modern Russian // Modern Nyelvoktatas: A Magyar Alkalmazott Nyelveszek es Nyelvtanarok Egyesfiletenek folyoirata. XVI. 2010. S. 116-118; Sjostrom S. Spatial relations: Towards a theory of spatial verbs, prepositions, a pronominal adverbs in Swedish. Goteborg: Dept, of linguistics, 1990.
Kartsevsky S.O. Comparison // Questions of linguistics. 1976. No. 1. S. 112.
Isachenko A.V. The grammatical structure of the Russian language in comparison with the Slovak language. Bratislava, 1965.S. 201.
Cm.: Espersen O. Philosophy of grammar: per. from English M., 1958.