Penza State University
Faculty of Law
Department of "Philosophy and Social Communication"
ESSAY
in the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech"
Performed):
student (s) of group 17YU1
Lvova T.S.
Checked:
Art. teacher of the department. FGC
Yusupova E.A.
Penza, 2017
Introduction. 3
1. "Speech" and its features. 5
2. Communicative qualities of business speech. ten
2.1 Functional qualities. ten
2.2 Structural qualities. 23
Conclusion. 28
List of used literature .. 30
Introduction
Communicative norms are focused on ensuring the highest possible communication efficiency in any communicative situation, taking into account all its features. In fact, communication norms are aimed at regulating the communication process. They make it possible to structure its process and implement a common ethical task - morally competent interaction of communicants. Communicative norms determine the purposefulness and expediency of all communication. They ensure the continuity and success of the communication process. Communication norms combine strategic and tactical elements.
Criteria for assessing the effectiveness of a particular act of communication continue to be one of the most pressing problems of the modern Russian language, since outside the analysis of speech works, based on clear constant criteria, it is impossible to achieve a higher level of language proficiency.
Among the various approaches to assessing speech (and its effectiveness in particular), the most productive approach is from the standpoint of analyzing the degree of speech compliance with the conditions of communication and the communicative tasks of speech partners, that is, from the standpoint of communicative expediency. It is this approach that can be carried out when assessing speech from the standpoint of the communicative qualities of speech.
The communicative qualities of speech are the real properties of its content or formal side. It is the system of these properties that determines the degree of communicative perfection of speech.
The communicative qualities of speech cover all aspects of the text, and their ratio and the degree of manifestation in the text depend on the genre and style of the statement, on the individual characteristics of the communicants. The main communicative qualities of speech: relevance, wealth, purity, accuracy, consistency, accessibility, expressiveness and correctness. Each of these qualities is manifested in speech to varying degrees and in various correlations with other properties of speech.
The purpose of this work is to consider the basic communicative qualities of speech.
1. give the concept of speech and its features;
2. to consider the basic communicative qualities of speech (relevance, richness, purity, accuracy, consistency, accessibility, expressiveness, correctness).
Speech "and its features
The role of language in the life of every society is enormous, since the emergence and existence of man and his language are inextricably linked with each other. “Language is designed to serve as a tool for communication between people, and is designed so as to be naturally assimilated and an adequate means of information exchange and accumulation. Its structure is subordinated to the tasks of communication, which consists in transmitting and receiving thoughts about objects of reality. "
Language is a socially processed historically changeable sign system that serves as the main way of communication and representation by different forms of existence, each of which has at least one of two forms of realization (written or oral).
Speech is the process of using language.
The word "speech" denotes a specific human activity. To characterize "speech", this word in linguistics is used in two main meanings:
The process of speaking (orally) or writing (in writing) is also called speech,
And those speech works (statements, oral and written texts) that are a sound or graphic product (result) of this activity.
Language and speech are interconnected, since speech is language in action. To achieve a high culture of speech, language and speech must be distinguished.
First of all, the fact that language is a system of signs, and speech is an activity that proceeds as a process and is presented as a product of this activity. And although speech is based on one language or another, this is the most important difference, which, for various reasons, determines others.
Speech is a way of implementing all the functions of the language, primarily communicative. Speech arises as a necessary response to certain events of reality (including speech), therefore, unlike language, it is deliberate and focused on a specific goal.
Speech is material - it sounds orally, but in writing it is recorded using appropriate graphic means, sometimes different from the given language, for example, in another graphic system (Latin, Cyrillic, hieroglyphic writing) or with the help of signs, formulas, drawings, etc. ...
Speech depends on specific situations, unfolds in time and is realized in space. Speech is created by a specific person in specific conditions, for a specific person (audience), therefore, it is always specific and unique. At the same time, theoretically, speech can last indefinitely (with and without interruptions). In fact, our whole life, from the time we start to speak and until we say the last word, is one big speech in which circumstances, the addressee, the subject of speech, form, etc. change, but we continue to speak ( or write).
In this regard, speech develops linearly, that is, we pronounce one sentence after another in a certain sequence. The process of oral speech is characterized by the fact that speech proceeds at a certain (sometimes changing) tempo, with a greater or lesser duration, degree of loudness, articulatory clarity, etc. Written speech can also be fast or slow, clear or fuzzy, more or less voluminous etc. That is, the materiality of speech can be illustrated by various examples. Language, in contrast to speech, is believed to be ideal, that is, it exists outside of speech as a whole only in the minds of those who speak this language or study this language, and also as a part of this whole - in various dictionaries and reference books.
Speech is, as a rule, the activity of one person - a speaker or a writer, therefore it is a reflection of the various characteristics of this person. Consequently, speech is initially subjective, because the speaker or writer himself selects the content of his speech, reflects his individual consciousness and individual experience in it, while language, in the system of meanings expressed by it, captures the experience of the collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. In addition, speech is always individual, since people never use all the means of language and are content with only a part of the language means, choosing the most suitable ones according to their level of knowledge of the language and the conditions of a particular situation. As a result, the meanings of words in speech may differ from those that are strictly defined and fixed by dictionaries. In speech, situations are possible in which words and even individual sentences receive a completely different meaning than in language, for example, with the help of intonation. Speech can also be characterized by indicating the psychological state of the speaker, his communicative task, attitude towards the interlocutor, sincerity.
Speech is not limited only to linguistic means. The composition of speech means also includes those that belong to non-linguistic (non-verbal, or non-verbal): voice, intonation, gestures, facial expressions, posture, position in space, etc.
All these differences between speech and language relate primarily to speech as a process of using language, therefore, although with a stretch, they are grounds for opposing them, since in this regard, the creation of speech as a process proceeds in many stages and partially coincides with the boundaries of the largest language units: with sentence boundaries. If we talk about speech as a result of this process, that is, as a text, then the description of speech at this level, in principle, cannot have common criteria with the language, since they are completely inapplicable to the language.
Therefore, we can talk about the following types of speech, as a result of the process:
Speech can be external (spoken or written) and internal (not voiced and not fixed for others). We use inner speech as a means of thinking or internal speaking (speech minus sound), as well as a way of memorizing.
Speech-utterance takes place in certain speech genres, for example, writing, speaking, saying goodbye, etc.
The speech-text should be built in accordance with one or another functional style: scientific, official-business, journalistic, colloquial or artistic.
Speech as a text reflects reality and can be viewed from the point of view of its truth and falsity (true / partially true / false).
Aesthetic (beautiful / ugly / ugly) and ethical assessments (good / bad), etc., are applicable to speech-text.
Thus, we see that all the functions of the language are realized in speech. And language turns out to be the main, but not the only means of creating it. Speech is always the result of the creative activity of the individual, therefore, the approach to analysis, assessment and methods of creating speech must be completely different than to language. This is especially important when considering speech from the point of view of its culture.
The concept of "culture of speech" is closely related not only to the laws of the functioning of the language system, but also to the whole variety of speech activity. The culture of speech is characterized, first of all, by the correctness of speech (the scale is correct - incorrect: you can speak like that - you cannot speak like that).
The normative aspect of the culture of speech regulates mainly the structural and sign aspects of speech, but does not touch upon the problems associated with the relationship of speech to consciousness, human behavior, society and the surrounding reality. This is evidenced by a large number of statements that are diverse in content, which are impeccable from the point of view of linguistic norms, but do not achieve the communicative goal.
SI Ozhegov wrote: “A high culture of speech is the ability to correctly, accurately and expressively convey one's thoughts by means of language. Correct speech is the one in which the norms of the modern literary language are observed ... But the culture of speech is not only in following the norms of the language. It also consists in the ability to find not only the exact means for expressing one's thoughts, but also the most intelligible (ie, the most expressive) and the most appropriate (ie, the most suitable for a given case) and, therefore, stylistically justified. "
The communicative aspect of speech culture is focused on mastering all functional styles of the literary language. Depending on the situation, a communicatively competent person should be able to use expressive colloquial speech, formulate his thoughts using the means of official business and scientific styles, and competently use the pictorial and expressive riches of the Russian language.
An important quality of the communicative aspect of speech culture is communicative expediency - the appropriate use of linguistic means in accordance with the communicative situation. The culture of speech helps to form a conscious attitude towards the selection of linguistic means in the process of communication.
Communication qualities of business speech
The communicative qualities of speech are those properties of speech that help organize communication and make it effective.
The word "communication" means the transfer of information from speaker to listener. In order for the latter to correctly perceive speech and understand it, it is necessary to determine what properties the speaker's replicas should have. There are special qualities that have the best effect on the listener.
The main communicative qualities include:
1. accuracy of speech;
2. consistency of speech;
3. completeness of speech;
4. purity of speech;
5. expressiveness of speech;
6. the relevance of speech;
7. richness of speech;
8. accessibility of speech;
9. correctness of speech.
The communicative qualities of speech from the point of view of a structurally functional approach are in relation to interconnection and interdependence: thus, accuracy is based on the correctness of speech, accuracy, in turn, predetermines the clarity and consistency of speech, its accessibility and expressiveness. (Annex 1)
Functional qualities
Relevance of speech
Speech that corresponds to all the components of the communicative situation is called appropriate. Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, the composition of listeners or readers, informational, educational and aesthetic tasks of an oral or written presentation.
In this regard, relevance is a communicative quality that is transitional from ethical and communicative norms to speech norms, in relation to which relevance is distinguished in a broad and narrow sense.
Relevance in a broad sense reflects the compliance of speech with ethical and communicative norms, or situational relevance (compliance with the situation as a whole).
Relevance in the narrow sense presupposes verbal (textual) relevance, that is, an assessment of the feasibility of using a particular speech means.
Both types of appropriateness of speech are determined primarily by ethical and communicative norms, and are manifested in speech.
Relevance is a basic quality for speech culture, as it largely determines its success. The difference between relevance and other communicative qualities of speech is that, in fact, it depends on the assessment of the appropriateness or inappropriateness of speech whether the speech itself will take place, since this speech quality is laid down at the stage of predicting the speech activity itself in terms of how much this or that situation favorable for achieving certain communication goals.
Evaluation of speech outcomes in terms of relevance is also multifaceted. This is an assessment of the relevance for each of the levels of speech in the process of its creation, it is also a delayed assessment of the relevance of a particular statement or its fragment.
Thus, relevance is a tool for assessing speech in relation to the situation of communication and the text, both from the point of view of ethical and communicative norms, and from the point of view of the justification for the use of certain speech components in it.
Relevance is more closely related to all components of the communication situation: it depends on the participants in communication, and on its goals, and on the subject of speech, and on the external and internal conditions of communication.
First of all, regarding a specific communication situation, the motives and goals of each of the participants are assessed as achievable within the framework of a given communication situation or unattainable. And if, as a result of such an analysis of the situation, the communicants decide that it is better to refrain from the intended communication, then this will be a consequence of the fact that in this situation they found the speech inappropriate.
Speech may be appropriate or inappropriate in someone else's mouth. According to Knyazeva O.Yu., a person should have the right to speak.
This right in a given situation is given formally - in accordance with a certain situational speech role (for example, it is inappropriate for a student who has not passed the test to ask the teacher about the possibility of retaking in the following form: "When will we meet?"). And sometimes this right to speech is determined by the nature of his interests and knowledge or the moral character of a person. It is inappropriate to give advice to someone if the advisor himself is incompetent or insufficiently competent in this.
From the point of view of the focus of speech on the addressee, it is also important, first of all, to talk about the compliance of speech with ethical norms and norms of speech etiquette, to take into account the ratio of situational speech roles and individual characteristics of communicants.
It is believed that it is easiest to understand what is appropriate or inappropriate in a given situation, in terms of content. A classic example the need to comply with the situational appropriateness of speech is considered to be the rule not to talk about the rope in the hanged man's house. This rule is primarily of an ethical nature, and the substantive appropriateness / inappropriateness of speech itself is much broader: it can be determined both in relation to the addressee and the addressee, as well as the entire situation as a whole, since they are very closely interrelated.
Thus, the degree of appropriateness of speech regarding the participants in communication is determined to a greater extent by their ethical and communicative culture.
The textual relevance is included as an integral part of the situational. It highlights stylistic relevance (the correspondence of the use of linguistic means to a particular functional style) and style (correspondence of speech means, the style of a given author and a specific text). At the same time, stylistic relevance is assessed at the level of both the sentence and the text by those means that determine the belonging of the text to a particular style: lexical, phonetic-intonational, morphological, syntactic, etc. speech means).
Accuracy of speech
Accuracy of speech is its unconditional merit, an indicator of the speech skill of its author. Accuracy of speech is a necessary condition for its adequate and complete understanding, and hence the effectiveness of speech communication in general. Speech is called accurate if the meanings of words and phrases used in it are fully correlated with the semantic and objective aspects of speech.
The concept of speech accuracy includes two aspects: the accuracy of the reflection of reality and the accuracy of the verbal expression of thought. The first aspect is related to the presence / absence of factual errors in speech utterance: it is necessary to talk about what you know well. The second aspect may be related to the lack of concreteness in the statement: Someone who is somewhere, somehow there... or by mixing paronyms: main - title, business trip - business trip, critical - critical.
The accuracy of speech primarily characterizes its author, reflects the level of his thinking. In addition, accuracy allows you to judge whether reality is correctly reflected in speech, that is, those facts, events, phenomena that are spoken of (or silent) in speech. This aspect of accuracy correlates with the truthfulness of speech, therefore, characterizes the speaker or writer from an ethical standpoint. And the third component of the accuracy with which the author is characterized in speech is his skill - the level of speech proficiency, which manifests itself in the degree of success of the means used by him.
Highlighting the most stringent requirements for the accuracy of speech in a scientific style does not mean that accuracy is less important in other styles - it manifests itself in a different way, since it reflects not so much terminology as life realities and concepts.
In this regard, two main types of accuracy are distinguished: conceptual accuracy (and close to it terminological accuracy) and subject accuracy (which is close to actual accuracy). These two main types of accuracy differ primarily in the ratio to which they correspond.
Conceptual accuracy is distinguished according to the "speech-thinking" relationship, and objective accuracy - according to the "speech-reality" relationship.
To achieve linguistic and verbal accuracy of speech, certain conditions must be observed:
1) know the subject of speech - an aspect of general speech culture;
2) know the language, its system, the possibilities it provides (especially - to know the lexical system);
3) be able to correlate knowledge of the subject with knowledge of the language system and its capabilities in a specific act of communication.
Accurate word use is achieved primarily through the following speech skills associated with linguistic means:
The ability to choose the right word from the synonyms;
Ability to avoid speech inaccuracy due to inattention to the form of expression;
The ability to distinguish between words of the same root;
Ability to distinguish between paronyms;
Ability to use words of passive vocabulary.
So, the accuracy of speech is one of the main advantages of speech, the basis of its consistency. At the same time, precision is a multidimensional quality. And deliberate, purposeful deviations from it are based on the observance of one of the main requirements of the culture of speech - the desire for expediency in the use of all means.
Consistency of speech
The consistency of speech is the quality of speech, which must be inherent in it, and if consistency is observed in everything, then it becomes one of the most important advantages of speech.
The main definitions of the consistency of speech emphasize that speech can be called logical if it complies with the laws of logic.
When assessing the consistency of speech, it is necessary to use a multilevel approach. It is important to note that, first of all, the consistency of speech should correspond to the logic of communication (strategy and tactics of communication). The consistency of the text (its structure, first of all) should make it as easy as possible for the listener or reader to perceive it (if this does not contradict the communicative goals of the author of the speech).
The consistency of speech requires the ability to think correctly and, no less important, to convey your thoughts correctly and thereby evoke a planned reaction from the listeners (readers).
To achieve the consistency of speech, its author (especially in oral speech) needs not only to be aware of his thoughts, but also to order them, check their truth and consistency, and then build in some certain order the plan of the entire speech in which these thoughts will be expressed ( taking into account the characteristics of all components of the communication situation).
Thus, the culture of speech by logic understands mainly consistency, structural correctness and harmony, as well as the coherence of the utterance, that is, that which facilitates the easy understanding by the listener or reader of each sentence and the text as a whole.
The main criterion for assessing the degree of consistency of speech is consistency, consistency and purposefulness in the presentation of information. Consistency is a mandatory quality of speech in any genre, but consistency is especially important in scientific and official business speech.
To achieve the consistency of speech, it is necessary to observe the laws of logic, because the law of thinking, or a logical law, is a necessary, essential connection of thoughts in the process of reasoning.
Among the many logical laws, logic distinguishes four main ones that express the fundamental properties of logical thinking - its definiteness, consistency, consistency and validity. These are the laws of identity, non-contradiction, excluded third and sufficient reason.
The law of identity says: every thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself, that is, any thought in the process of reasoning must have a certain stable content so that there is no substitution of the concept.
The law of consistency is as follows: two judgments incompatible with each other cannot be true at the same time; at least one of them is necessarily false.
The law of the excluded third (it only acts in relation to conflicting judgments) suggests that: two conflicting judgments cannot be simultaneously false, one of them is necessarily true.
The law of sufficient reason states: every thought is recognized as true if it has a sufficient reason. A sufficient basis for thoughts can be personal experience or another, already verified and established thought (fact, etc.), from which the truth of a given thought necessarily follows.
The main linguistic means of expressing logical relationships and connections is the syntax of the Russian language. It reflects the main types of relationships between objects and concepts: generic, causal, temporal, spatial, etc.
The absence or violation of logical connections in the structure of the sentence and the text leads to the appearance of logical errors, and is also sometimes used as one or another artistic device.
Basic logical errors:
1. Approval of mutually exclusive concepts. For example: " Twenty years ago". (But the same principle is used deliberately in the basis of the artistic device of the oxymoron: “ Living Dead», « Dead Souls" etc.)
2. Shifting the outline of the presentation. For example, " It is difficult to assume that some of the adults have not heard about the dangers of smoking - everyone reads newspapers, watches TV, listens to the radio, although this is not considered normal". (Deliberate use to ridicule such errors in the saying “ Started for health - finished for peace»)
3. Comparison (opposition) of logically heterogeneous concepts. For example: " There were two students - one in a coat, the other to the institute». « We wanted the best, but it turned out as always". (The same error is used in the saying “ Elderberry in the garden, and uncle in Kiev»)
4. Incorrect establishment of causal relationships. For example: " Bus driver Makov is deprived of the award for traffic safety and service culture". (Deliberately used in a proverb to ridicule such errors: “ Born earlier than his father and herding grandfather's herd».)
5. Wrong word order. For example: " After serving with Nicholas I, the concept of freedom gets a philosophical beginning»..
6. Violation of logical connections between parts of the proposal.
For example: " Oblomov gets tired quickly, loves to sleep, but loves his homeland».
A logical text should be, first of all, structurally organized, and the image of this structure should be common for the author of the text and its addressee.
Accordingly, the main conditions of consistency at the level of the text imply the observance of structural unity and integrity, therefore:
1. The text should have a well thought out, strictly organized structure.
2. The text should clearly express the connection of sentences, while the logic of speech should reflect the logic of thought.
3. The text should indicate the transitions from one thought to another.
4. Each new thought must be indicated, for this the text must be correctly divided into parts (into paragraphs, paragraphs, chapters, etc.).
5. The volume of sentences in the text should be adequate to their content.
Consistency does not exclude the play of the mind, which is embodied in a language game - a joke, a paradox, a play on words, etc. This is wit, without which truly good speech of a truly cultured person is inconceivable and which manifests itself in any genre and style. The highest manifestation of consistency in rhetorical terms is the creation of a paradox - evidence of a virtuoso mastery of the logic of thinking and the logic of presentation.
From a formal point of view, a paradox (Greek paradox - "unexpected") is a violation of classical logic. Many dictionaries in explaining the meaning of the word "paradox" note this, but the most interesting and correct interpretation of this word was given by V. I. Dal:
"The paradox is a strange opinion, at first glance wild, puzzling, contrary to the general one."
So, consistency as a communicative quality provides a correct understanding of the meaning of speech both at the level of the sentence and at the level of the text (microtext). Consistency, as it is quite obvious, is closely interconnected with other qualities of speech, such as accuracy, accessibility, correctness, richness, expressiveness, etc.
Speech availability
The communicative quality of speech, which entirely depends on the characteristics of the communication situation, and specifically from the addressee, is accessibility. This is not a linguistic, but only a speech quality, since words in a language are neutral, they cannot be evaluated in terms of their accessibility and comprehensibility for someone outside the situation, outside of speech. Accessibility is one of the most communicative among other communicative qualities of speech, since it is entirely focused on dialogue with the addressee: accessibility presupposes the obligatory activity of the listener in perceiving, processing, decoding and transcoding what he heard or read.
Accessibility presupposes such a construction of speech in which the level of speech complexity, both in terms of terminology, content and structure, corresponds to the level of understanding of the addressee. In fact, this is a requirement to use in speech only those speech means that the addressee is able to perceive, recognize, understand and to which he is able to respond. Accessibility implies a mandatory response from the addressee as confirmation of the degree of comprehensibility of what was heard or read.
At the same time, accessibility is not so much a quality as a dignity of speech, since accessibility appears to a greater or lesser extent. Accordingly, the criteria for its assessment are: more accessible / less available / unavailable.
Thus, accessibility is regarded as a dignity of speech only if the required (with respect to all components of a given communication situation) level of speech complexity is observed.
In terms of the culture of speech, accessibility is:
First, the clarity to the addressee (recognizability) of all or the overwhelming majority of the words and expressions used. In this regard, the problem of understanding foreign language vocabulary or terminology is most often considered.
Secondly, accessibility presupposes the correlation with the concept not of the word, but of the meaning that stands behind the word or expression.
Thirdly, it is important that with a general understanding of the meanings of words, the meaning of the utterance as a whole becomes accessible. And if in the first two cases, in order to achieve understanding, it is often enough to find out the meaning of a word from a dictionary (or in special literature), or (in the second case) to find out its meaning from the one who owns this concept, then the availability of the meaning of the statement as a whole requires the addressee a certain level of knowledge regarding the subject of speech.
Language accessibility should contribute to communicative accessibility, but language often creates corresponding barriers to understanding. These include:
Another language in the literal sense of the word (foreign language unfamiliar to the addressee or a separate word (expression)) is barbarism;
Words of limited spheres of use (professionalisms, terms of dialecticism, jargon, etc.);
Words (expressions) from passive vocabulary, obsolete words, etc.
There are speech media that can make it difficult to understand and lead to inaccessibility. For example, the genre and style of speech, the individual manner of speech: not everyone can have access to the scientific or official-business style of speech.
To achieve the accessibility of speech, it is important to be able to choose from all your speech baggage those means that will most closely correspond to the level of the addressee and take into account all the components of the communication situation.
From the above, it follows that the degree of speech accessibility will depend on the goal: how much we strive to be understood and on how correctly we imagine our community with the addressee.
Expressiveness of speech
Expressive is a speech in which the expression of one's attitude to the subject and / or the form of speech corresponds to the communicative situation, and the speech as a whole is assessed as successful and effective. The main condition for expressiveness is that the author of the speech has his feelings, thoughts, his position, his own style. Expressiveness usually implies originality, originality, unexpectedness, therefore expressive speech is always new, "fresh", creative speech. It is in this way that she is able to arouse the interest and approval of those to whom she is intended.
The degree of expressiveness, the means for achieving the desired effect depend not only on the personality of the author and the characteristics of the addressee of speech, but also on the communication situation, which dictates the choice of the style and genre of the statement.
The difference between expressiveness and other advantages of speech lies primarily in the fact that it is the only quality that can only be possessed by the text as a whole. At the same time, expressiveness is always a dignity of speech, and not just its quality.
In addition, expressiveness is the dignity of speech primarily in the communicative aspect, since it evaluates the impression made by the text on specific listeners or readers in specific communication conditions. Therefore, the conclusion about the expressiveness / inexpressiveness of the text is made only by the addressee.
Expressiveness also carries out a specific role in relation to other qualities of speech: an aesthetic one. And wealth, accuracy, consistency, accessibility, correctness of speech as its communicative qualities are auxiliary means of expressiveness in this regard.
Expressiveness arises when the author is aware of himself as an individual, therefore expressiveness is closely related to its manifestation in speech. Expressiveness satisfies the creative needs of a person, personality, that is, the need for creativity. Moreover, both the speaker (writer) and the listener (reader). And everyone does this due to their abilities and capabilities.
In addition, expressiveness presupposes a desire to express something, a need for it. And this entails an inevitable increased need for communication. The stronger this need is, the more intense communication should be. Consequently, expressiveness is always an active search for a response.
To achieve expressiveness, it is important that those speech signals that are created thanks to speech creativity are not only positively assessed by the addressee, but also give rise to an adequate response to the intended one.
Expressiveness is achieved when, in the process of speech, creativity is expediently expressed the individuality of the author of the speech, then when this manifestation of the author's personality is aimed at obtaining the desired response from the addressee, then when the means that penetrate through his selective perception are guessed.
Means of expressiveness are often associated only with figurative means and with emotionality. In fact, any speech means can become a means of expressiveness. At the same time, in order to evaluate an utterance as expressive, it is important that all these means obey, first of all, ethical and communicative norms, which, in turn, dictate the requirement for the selection of means, taking into account the genre and style of the utterance, its oral or written form, etc.
In the first place in terms of importance in creating an expressive effect is the individuality of the author of the speech (provided that he has something to express). One of the most common advice to speakers is based on this: “to pass information through yourself,” that is, to develop a subjective-evaluative attitude to the subject of speech. All means of expression can be all means of language and speech (if they correspond to the communicative goals of the author of the speech). But most often, expressive means are used as means of expressiveness, since expressiveness is based on the expression of a subjective-evaluative attitude to the subject of speech. The subjective-evaluative attitude can be based on both rational and emotional evaluation. It can have open (expressive) and hidden (impressive) forms of expression.
What is speech?
Speech is the ability to communicate using words, sounds, and other elements of the language.
Speech is a historically established form of communication between people through linguistic structures created on the basis of certain rules. The process of speech involves, on the one hand, the formation and formulation of thoughts by linguistic (speech) means, and on the other hand, the perception of linguistic structures and their understanding (language in action).
Depending on which area public life a person uses a literary language, there are several varieties: the language of fiction, colloquial speech, functional styles - journalistic, official-business, scientific.
Unlike the literary form, knowledge of the basic rules of which is necessary for everyone, the linguistic manifestations of non-literary forms are limited, have a narrow sphere of expression of thoughts and feelings and are not general, mandatory for all native speakers
By origin, the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language is divided into native Russian vocabulary(for example: man, obstacle, journey, banish, worry, handsome, brave etc.) and borrowed(for example: galoshes, dressing gown, bestseller, conformism, mass media, engage, adequate, businessman and etc.).
According to the time of fixing certain linguistic means in the lexical composition of the language, they differ modern, outdated and new the words.
Varieties of language
Russian literary language has two forms - oral and written. Each of them has its own specifics and differs in its internal nature: both of these forms of speech express our thoughts, emotions, but the system of means of expression in them is different.
peculiarities oral speech ?
there are up to 50 types of oral speech. The most common are - Speaking, oratorical, declamatory and scientific... Unlike colloquial speech, all other varieties belong to codified speech, i.e. official speech, "legalized" by the rules of the literary Russian language. Codified speech is heard at evenings and meetings, conventions and conferences, in radio and television appearances and other official settings.
One of the main features of oral speech is that it is always designed for auditory perception, for certain listeners who, to a certain extent, are the speaker's interlocutors.
Thus, speaking always depends on the situation and is highly situational and emotional... Emotions express our attitude to what we have said, so speaking can actively help the listener to perceive the content of our utterance.
Distinguishes between oral speech and its inherent to one degree or another improvisation... Associated with this feature of oral speech is the requirement you just and naturalness of language.
By the number of participants, speeches stand out dialogue and monologue .
Dialogue- conversation between two or more persons - is one of the most common types of oral speech, the most natural form of verbal communication
Monologue speech more complicated than dialogical, both in content and linguistic design, it always presupposes high level linguistic development of the speaker.
4 . Language unit- an element of the language system, indecomposable within a certain level division of the text and opposed to other units in the language subsystem corresponding to this level. Can be decomposed into lower-level units. the main structural units of speech are a phrase, a word and a part of a word. Concept - the unity of essential properties, connections and relations of objects or phenomena, reflected in thinking; a thought or a system of thoughts that distinguishes and generalizes objects of a certain class according to certain general and in the aggregate characteristics specific to them. A concept is the result of applying a category to perception. Hence the concept in its abstraction opposes the concreteness of perception. Also, the concept is opposed to the word, which can be interpreted as a sign of the concept. The word (unambiguous axiomatic designation in the vocabulary) is one of the main structural units of the language, which serves to name objects, their qualities and characteristics, their interactions, as well as naming imaginary and abstract concepts created by the human imagination.
A culture of speech
In a word the culture we call the level of development of any economic branch, social and mental sphere of human activity. We are speaking: culture of work, culture of agriculture, culture of behavior, culture of relationships, culture of speech. In the conventional sense, under culture of speech it means the level of use of the wealth of the language by one or another person, the degree of language proficiency in different conditions of communication. The better a person knows the language, the more freely he owns its wealth, the higher the culture of this person's speech, the more influence his speech has on others. For, as the German proverb says, "He who owns speech owns people."
What are the elements of the culture of speech?
This capacious characteristic breaks down into the following components:
· Correctness, wealth, expressiveness, purity. Accuracy. Consistency, accessibility, relevance, efficiency
The presented qualities of cultural speech are called communicative qualities and are in a strict hierarchical relationship and interconnection, therefore, from a linguistic point of view, the term “ a culture of speech "Has the following two meanings:
First– the culture of speech is the totality and system of its communicative qualities:
a) its features and properties, the totality and system of which speaks of its communicative perfection;
b) a set of skills and knowledge of a person, ensuring the feasibility and ease of using the language for communication.
Second the meaning of the concept of "culture of speech": this is the doctrine of the totality and system of the communicative qualities of speech(area of linguistics).
The subject of speech culture: linguistic structure of speech in its communicative impact. In other words: the culture of speech is the ability to use all the possibilities of the language in which the speaker speaks
Communicative qualities of cultural speech
1. Communicative qualities of speech: correctness, accuracy, consistency, purity, richness, expressiveness, relevance, communicative expediency, tolerance, assertiveness.
The communicative qualities of cultural speech are divided into three hierarchical levels:
The first step, the main , basic, –correct speech.
The second step - communicatively expedient speech that includes seven qualities: and relevance.
Third step, the final , final, – efficient speech.
Each section of the language is subject to norms. In modern Russian literary language, there are spelling, punctuation, orthoepic (phonetic), lexico-phraseological, morphological (word formation and inflection), syntactic, stylistic norms.
So, spelling norms regulate the choice of options for the graphic appearance of the word.
Punctuation norms regulate the choice of punctuation marks and their arrangement in the text.
Orthoepic norms adjust the choice of acoustic options phonemes or alternating phonemes at each step of the development of speech and in each syllable of individual words.
Orthoepic norms include stress norms , which regulate the choice of placement options and the movement of stress (stressed syllable) among unstressed ones.
Morphological norms include norms word formation and inflection.
Word formation norms regulate the choice of morphemes, their placement and connection in the composition of a new word. Inflection rates regulate the choice of variants of the morphological form of the word or variants of its linkage with others.
Syntactic norms regulate the choice of options for constructing phrases and sentences.
Lexical norms regulate the choice of word variants and their meanings
Stylistic norms regulate the correspondence of the selected word or syntactic structure to the conditions of communication and the prevailing style of presentation.
It is possible not to possess creative, artistic abilities, but in everyday and professional speech practice, the norm is obligatory for everyone who seeks to master the literary language.
The culture of speech cannot be reduced to just one correct speech. The following seven qualities – wealth, expressiveness, purity, accuracy, consistency, accessibility and relevance- belong to the second, higher stage of mastering the literary language, which is called , i.e. ... speech structured according to the purpose of communication(communication).
Correctness of speech
Correctness of speech, by definition S.I. Ozhegova, "the first, lowest, its level", without which it is impossible to talk about the culture of speech in principle, since the correctness of speech is compliance with norms modern Russian literary language. Speech should be correct, normative always, in any communication situations. Just as one should not consider a person who violates the laws of the society in which he lives to be a true citizen of his country, just as one should not be counted among the cultural speech, replete with errors, violations of language rules - the same laws language we speak (write).
Every nation has its own literary norm language , which is characterized by stability and obligation for speakers of this language. SPECIES OF LANGUAGE STANDARDS
In the literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
norms of written and oral forms of speech;
writing norms;
the norms of oral speech.
The norms common to oral and written speech include:
lexical norms;
grammatical norms;
stylistic norms.
The special norms of writing are:
spelling norms;
punctuation norms.
Only for oral speech are applicable:
pronunciation norms;
stress norms;
intonation norms.
The norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and the construction of texts. Lexical norms, or norms of word use, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or in form, as well as its use in those meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.
Violation of them leads to lexical errors. different types(examples of errors from the essays of applicants):
not right choice words from a number of units, including mixing of paronyms, inaccurate choice of a synonym, wrong choice of a unit of the semantic field (bone type of thinking, analyze the life of writers, Nikolaev's aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
violation of the norms of lexical compatibility (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, passed all stages of human development);
the contradiction between the speaker's intention and the emotional-evaluative connotations of the word (Pushkin chose the path of life correctly and followed it, leaving indelible traces; He made an unbearable contribution to the development of Russia);
the use of anachronisms (Lomonosov entered the institute, Raskolnikov studied at the university);
mixing of linguocultural realities (Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
incorrect use of phraseological phrases (Youth beat him with a key; We must bring him to fresh water).
ambiguity (While Oblomov was asleep, many were preparing for his awakening; Oblomov's only entertainment is Zakhar; Yesenin, keeping traditions, but somehow not so fond of the beautiful female sex; All actions and relations between Olga and Oblomov were incomplete).
Spelling rules are the rules for naming words in writing. They include the rules for naming sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for using uppercase (capital) letters and graphic abbreviations.
Punctuation norms determine the use of punctuation marks.
Punctuation tools have the following functions:
delimitation in a written text of one syntactic structure (or its element) from another;
fixing the left and right boundaries of the syntactic structure or its element in the text;
combining several syntactic structures in the text into one whole.
8. 4. Communicative expediency of speech
The qualities of "good" speech include those that determine its communicative appropriateness. These are accuracy, expressiveness and richness (sometimes purity, clarity and comprehensibility are also referred to as communicative qualities).
The accuracy of speech is associated with the accuracy of word use, the correct use of polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms. The most important condition for accuracy is adherence to lexical norms. Speech is accurate if the speaker selects words and constructions that more accurately convey the shades of meaning that are essential for this particular utterance. For example, if we say “deafening” about a very loud scream, then we will more accurately inform the listener. Or if we choose an appropriate word from the synonymous row (build - erect) for the text of the business style: "The builders promised to build the building in September, and by October they will complete all the finishing work."
If the speaker cares about providing feedback, evoking the desired response from the listener to the message - intellectual (to make it understandable), emotional (to awaken a feeling), volitional (to force action), then this is evidence of the expressiveness of his speech.
Expressiveness can be created at the level of all linguistic units. In public speech and business communication, specific pictorial means are often used that make the statement vivid, figurative, emotional.
These are the so-called rhetorical figures - fixed turns of speech, words and expressions in figurative meanings, which are the decoration of the text. They enrich and diversify messages. In rhetoric, figures of thought were traditionally distinguished (means to highlight a given thought, which did not change from retelling in other words) and figures of words (a way to attract attention to a certain place of speech). The figures of the word, in turn, were divided into figures of addition, decrease, movement, and rethinking of words. The latter are called paths.
Appropriate and uncomplicated use of language for communication is ensured
the quality of "good" speech: accuracy, purity, consistency, expressiveness,
wealth, propriety.
Accuracy is the correspondence of the semantic content of speech and information, which
lies at the heart of it. The accuracy of speech is associated with the accuracy of word use, with
the correct use of ambiguous words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms.
The most important condition for the accuracy of speech is adherence to lexical norms.
Speech is accurate if the speaker selects those words and structures that
more accurately than others convey shades of meaning that are essential specifically for a given
statements.
Purity means the absence in speech of elements alien to the literary language.
(dialectal, professional, jargon, etc.)
Consistency is the expression in semantic connections of the components of speech of connections and
relations between parts of the components of thought.
Expressiveness of speech is the quality resulting from
implementation of the expressive capabilities inherent in the language. Expressiveness can
created by linguistic units of all levels. In addition, there are
specific visual properties of the language (tropes, stylistic figures),
making the statement bright, imaginative, emotional. Expression also creates
the use of winged words, proverbs and sayings.
Wealth is the wide and free use of language units in speech,
allowing you to optimally express information.
Relevance is the use in speech of linguistic units corresponding to
goals, situation, conditions, content of communication.
Rich speech
Rich speech
There are concepts in the language active and passive dictionary. What is active Passive the dictionary suggests contextual understanding linguistic units, but not use
Richness of speech- this and set of skills
Under polysemy understand the presence various but to some extent related between each other and ; different interpretations Earth the soil, And How land, And How peace, And How planet, And How mainland, And How country, state, edge, And How plot, And How substance and etc
Homonyms outfit1 – clothes and outfit2 – disposition;
homographs chl O pok - clap O To.
homophones : pillar - pillar
Synonyms
Function substitutions clarification Stood out glorious day. - Outstanding glorious, fair day.).
Phraseologisms slipshod,
expressive.
Rich speech
Rich speech is defined as speech in which the stock of words, patterns of phrases and sentences in the active vocabulary is larger than in the usual set, and is used for easy and purposeful communication.
There are concepts in the language active and passive dictionary. What is active dictionary? These are lexical units that a speaker (writer) in a given language actively, without difficulty, uses in speech, as opposed to a passive vocabulary. This is the vocabulary of a person. Passive the dictionary suggests contextual understanding linguistic units, but not use them in normal speech communication.
Richness of speech- this and set of skills, necessary for an easy and expedient use of language means that are in the active language stock of a person.
Under polysemy understand the presence various but to some extent related between each other and meanings of the same word; different interpretations the same language model depending on the context. (" Earth»Contextually can be interpreted as the soil, And How land, And How peace, And How planet, And How mainland, And How country, state, edge, And How plot, And How substance and etc
Homonyms- these are different words, but they have the same sound and spelling. For example, outfit1 – clothes and outfit2 – disposition;
Words that match only in writing, but differ in pronunciation, are called homographs ... Homographs usually emphasize different syllables: chl O pok - clap O To.
Words are different in spelling, but the same in sound, are called homophones : pillar - pillar
Synonyms- words that are close in meaning, but not identical: nice, good, wonderful Synonyms perform a number of functions in the language, and above all the expressive-stylistic function, the functions of replacement and clarification.
The stylistic differences of synonyms are the basis of the stylistic diversity of language and speech.
Function substitutions makes it possible to avoid unwanted repetition of the same word, allows you to diversify, enliven speech. The most valuable function is clarification associated with the desire to express an idea as clearly as possible, with a high degree of accuracy (Cf .: Stood out glorious day. - Outstanding glorious, fair day.).
Phraseologisms- the doctrine of expressions, turns of speech) - stable, semantically indivisible combinations of words: slipshod,
Phraseologisms are not created in the process of speech, but are used as they are fixed in the language, therefore, they exclude the replacement of one or another component with a word close in meaning. The use of phraseological units gives speech brightness, liveliness, imagery, since the very nature of phraseological units, their stylistic coloration enriches speech, serves as an "antidote" to speech cliches.
The variety of lexical means of the Russian language, of course, is not limited to the described units - synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, paronyms, phraseological units. His reserves include metaphors, hyperboles, personifications and other comparison paths. The richness of the language is also created thanks to the ramified system of stylistic figures (some of them are given by us). All these possibilities of the language not only add variety to speech, but also make it capacious, figurative, expressive.
Expressiveness of speech
Expressiveness- this is the quality of speech, which, by its properties and characteristics, maintains the attention and interest of the listeners (readers). Consequently, speech culture is not only a good knowledge of the language, the ability to use its wealth, but also the possession of the expressive possibilities of speech.
Expressiveness- this is first of all imagery speech, its brightness, originality. Figurative speech, with its properties, affects consciousness, forms concrete-sensory ideas about reality.
Imagery is inconceivable without the richness of speech, for it is achieved proper linguistic means, in other words: skillful use of all the riches of the language, fluency in its lexical diversity - homonyms, synonyms, paronyms, antonyms, phraseological units.
Imagery is inherent primarily in written speech, in which the author has the opportunity to maximize his text in order to most fully convey his feelings, thoughts, intentions. It is a well-chosen, bright word that makes speech bright and unforgettable.
The second, no less important means of speech expressiveness is intonation... Under intonation understand various shades of the reader's voice, which reflect the semantic and emotional aspects of speech.
Intonation is made up of logical stress, pauses, pace, strength and pitch, tone... All these elements of intonation are closely related, complement each other, are determined by the content of speech and are determined by the speaker's choice, i.e. entirely depend on his speech intentions.
Intonation, speech expressiveness is the prerogative of oral speech.
What kind of conscious choice of expressive intonation means can we talk about?
From the standpoint of speech expressiveness, clarity and clarity of pronunciation, good diction, accuracy of stress, voice capabilities, correct breathing- in a word, all those components that have a common name - speech technique.
Speech technique- this is the system of work of the speaker (orator, reader) on his speech apparatus.
So, speech technique, intonational logic sounding speech, emotional-figurative expressiveness(expressiveness) - three interrelated components of intonation, expressive triad , which forms the basis of performing skills, the essence of which is the ability to "draw with intonation."
Let's dwell on the technical side of intonation. Breath, voice and diction- constituent parts of word formation, i.e. speech apparatus in action.
Speech breathing differs from the usual, physiological, involuntary, when inhalation - exhalation - pause rhythmically alternates. Speech breathing is abdominal (diaphragmatic). During speaking (reading), breathing becomes voluntary, consciously controlled and controlled: a deep breath is followed by a short pause, and then a slow, smooth exhalation, during which the act of speaking (reading) occurs.
Correct breathing is free breathing (devoid of tension), deep, imperceptible, automatically subordinate to the will of the speaker (reader). In this case, one should not overfill the lungs with air and do not exhale completely. Several training exercises will teach you to take correct inhalation and smooth exhalation until the full pronunciation of an indivisible text. Such exercises are convenient for reading proverbs.
The purity of the speaker's voice (reader) also depends on the correct breathing.
Voice- the most delicate and thinnest instrument that every person should easily and freely own. The voice must be well developed, modulated, loud enough, therefore it must be protected, exercised, enriched, improved, and developed. The best voice is of medium strength and pitch, as it is the most mobile and flexible.
Good diction - one of the most important conditions for expressive speech. It enables clear sounding and quick understanding of any word. Hence, strict requirements arise not only for expressive, but also for cultural speech in general: dictionary purity, clarity, intelligibility, as well as strict adherence to orthoepic norms and rules of literary stress.
By means of implementation logical expressiveness of the sounding text are the arrangement of logical accents, pauses, changing the tempo of pronouncing speech bars, playing the voice. To create the appropriate melody of speech, it is necessary to mentally divide it into parts and, within each of these parts, find logical centers and the logic of pronouncing the phrase as a whole.
Good speech - meaningful paused speech... Pauses make live speech natural, clear, expressive. Pauses not only dismember speech, but also unite it: the words between the pauses acquire semantic unity.
An important means of logical expressiveness is and pace... It slows down or speeds up due to the stretching or condensation of the time it takes to pronounce words and take pauses. The pace of reading depends on the genre of the speech work, on the nature of the depicted pictures, phenomena.
By raising and lowering the voice, increasing and decreasing its volume and strength, accelerating and slowing down the tempo, logical melodic phrases which in speech score (graphical scheduling of the melodic pattern of speech) is indicated by the corresponding icons, and in the letter it is determined by punctuation marks.
Emotional expressiveness living speech is not limited to intelligibility, intonational consistency. Every word that has flown out of a person's mouth, apart from will and intention, reveals his state. At the same time, each person expresses his feelings in his own way. In order for the thought to be preserved as clearly as possible during the transfer of judgment, it is necessary to clearly see in front of us are those images that we want to convey to our audience, with which we strive to captivate our listeners. This is the only way for the listeners to “see” these images. Otherwise, the words themselves, not illuminated by the inner representation, will slide past the consciousness and imagination of those to whom they are intended, and will become only combinations of sounds denoting concepts, but the meaning of these concepts and their meaning will not be revealed by the addressees. Such images that appear in the mind's eye of a person are usually called in and́ denii.
In and́ denia are needed not only when speaking, but also when reading the text, they must correspond to the meaning of the speech being spoken, to the events we are talking about, because you cannot pronounce the text without imagining the reality behind it. Visions should reflect subtext.
The degree of clarity, detail, and continuity of vision varies. Usually, pictures and images appear in our imagination immediately at the birth of a thought, but they are not so complete and clear. Bright and accurate visions, imaginative representations are formed gradually, in the process of training, in parallel with the assimilation of the meaning of various phenomena of life, our attitude to them, as a result of careful reading and work on creative imagination.
Sharing our thoughts, telling our interlocutors about an event that excited us, an event, we draw with our voice the behavior of people, pictures of nature, the interior and strive to evoke in the listeners the corresponding visions and a certain assessment of what we saw. At the same time, regardless of whether we look at them or not, they are still in our field of attention. We always feel their mood, their response, which influence the course of our story, stimulate or inhibit it.
Thus, subtext and ví denia- the fruit of the creative mastering of the text, as a result of which it becomes extremely understandable, close and exciting. The subtext is conveyed by intonation. Intonation is born in verbal action, that is, the purposeful pronunciation of individual sentences, phrases.
Summing up the description of the expressiveness of speech, this most important communicative speech quality, it must be emphasized that it can be achieved only if certain conditions.
The first one is independent thinking... The second condition is caring attitude of the author to what he says and writes... The third condition is proficiency in speech(intonation) and good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities.
Good knowledge of the language implies mastery not only of such communicative qualities of speech as correctness, richness and expressiveness, but also purity of speech.
Pure speech
Pure speech- speech without words and phrases that are alien to the literary language and rejected by the norms of morality ( dialectisms, clericalisms, jargonisms, barbarisms, vernaculars, vulgarisms etc.).
The development of the general and speech culture of a person begins with the eradication of language means from people's speech that destroy its purity. Dialectisms are among such means.
Dialectisms- words, phrases that are not belonging to the common language of the people, but to one or another local dialect (territorial dialect). So, for central Russia, the use of words such as: let's solve problem (vm. literary decide... Dialect words in official speeches not only do not decorate it, but also give rise to ambiguity of thought, confusion of concepts, entail the difficulty of mutual communication.
In what cases is the use of dialectisms permissible? First of all, in fiction to create realistic images. The use of local words in the works is dictated by artistic expediency. The use of dialectisms is also legitimate in scientific research and other publications, in which they become the subject of observation and description. Outside the limits of fiction and special scientific literature, dialectisms are an undesirable phenomenon.
Another phenomenon that no less destroys the purity of speech is barbarisms - unjustified borrowing of foreign vocabulary. We are talking about foreign words used unnecessarily, for example: here happening(vm. with us celebration, holiday). The use of foreign words without a sense of proportion, unnecessarily, without sufficient reason spoils Russian speech and harms both common sense and common taste.
Our speech is penetrated and bureaucracy: in business, along the line (along the line of criticism) Stationery - these are verbal templates, stereotypes that are used in a situation of business communication, when drawing up business papers, documents, where stable forms of speech are needed that do not require special speech findings, beauty and expressiveness of language, but, on the contrary, suggesting speech automatism, accepted stencils ...
Such stamped phrases, getting into living speech, clog it, depersonalize it, deprive it of naturalness and expressiveness, prevent it from accurately and vividly conveying one's thought. A person whose speech is replete with clericalism seems uninteresting, limited, spiritually poor.
Outside the framework of the literary language are also jargon.
Slang- words and stable phrases characteristic of the colloquial speech of people united by a common interest, knowledge, social status, age The use of jargon outside these social groups is a serious speech deficiency and leads to a violation of the lexical and stylistic norms of the Russian literary language.
Unacceptable use in cultural speech and common words.
Vernacular words - a kind of national language that does not correspond to the norms of literary word use (trolley, theirs, no, sho(make), between, helluva lot, local, bake Common speech is not limited either geographically or socially. This is an indicator of insufficiently educated people. Therefore, in an official setting, vernacular words are unacceptable.
And, of course, pure speech does not allow foul language, among educated people vulgarisms , of course, they are condemned, because verbal abuse is not only bad manners, a bad habit, but also humiliation of oneself, disrespect and even insult to those in whose presence it sounds. Foul language is a sign of philistine rudeness.
Accurate speech
Accurate speech- speech, in which words strictly correspond to the designated objects, phenomena of reality and the intentions of the speaker (writer).
Accuracy as the communicative quality of speech can be divided into semantic accuracy and intentional precision, that is target.
Semantic accuracy there is a strict correspondence between the chosen word, what this word expresses, the object, the phenomenon of reality and the reality that this word calls.
The correspondence of the content of speech to the designated object presupposes knowledge of the generally accepted meaning of the selected words, the meaning behind them, and comprehensive knowledge of the object itself, the phenomenon real life, the reality event being reported.
Intentional precision- strict compliance with the intention of the speaker (writer), the goal that he wants to achieve in communication. Intentional accuracy is determined by the achievement of the result: if the achieved result corresponds to our intentions, aspirations, then this speech is intentionally accurate; if the result of influencing someone through speech does not correspond to our desire, to the idea that we realize with the help of certain words, speech is intentionally imprecise.
Intentional accuracy is extremely important in terms of achieving the result of communication, etiquette and ethical standards. An inaccurately chosen word that does not correspond to intentions leads to a different than expected result, to misunderstanding, resentment and even enmity. Therefore, intentional precision is a prerequisite for any communication.
Accuracy of speech is an integral part of the general speech culture, but it, as a rule, implies the observance of one more communicative quality - consistency.
Logical speech
Logical speech- speech in which words and phrases in one utterance and utterances in the whole text do not contradict each other in semantic terms, the laws of thinking and the logic of relationships between objects and phenomena of the real world.
In order to learn to speak and write logically, one must first of all learn to think logically, that is, not to violate the conditions of consistency in the statement and the whole text.
So what are these conditions? What requirements of consistency should a statement, a text meet?
First, the combination of one word with another should not be contradictory.
Second, you need the correct word order. In Russian, unlike others, words are not assigned to a specific place in a sentence. We can say: I went to the cinema yesterday; I went to the cinema yesterday;
Thirdly, the correct choice of service word-bundles is important - prepositions, conjunctions, particles, introductory constructions, etc. . :thanks, at the expense, which means, in the first place, so and others, which ensure the clarity of logical connections between parts of the statement.
Fourthly, the clarity and correctness of the expression by the linguistic means of communication of individual statements in the text is mandatory. A common case of violation of speech consistency is an incorrect connection of adjacent sentences: The athlete hit the ball with his fist, which the immediately ended up in the net(ball? fist? or maybe an athlete? Wed: Athlete punched his fist ball, and he(which the) immediately ended up in the net. Consistency is the communicative component of any good speech and, above all, scientific speech, which will be discussed in the third section of the book.
Available speech
The communicative qualities of speech described above, and above all accuracy and consistency, also imply the easy accessibility of its perception to those to whom it is addressed, because we speak and write in order to be understood, but we listen and read in order to understand the other.
The factor of accessibility is another extremely important aspect of cultural speech, because the success of communication depends both on how correct linguistic means a person uses to convey his thoughts, and on how deeply through the linguistic expression another can penetrate into his plan, i.e. e. on how, in the selection of speech means, the speaking (writing) takes into account the abilities and capabilities of the interlocutor (reader) to comprehend the verbalized (embodied in the word) thought. Therefore, the successful choice of means of expression by those who reproduce speech affects the degree of its assimilation by the perceiver (although the picture of the communication process seems to be much more complicated, this will be discussed in the next chapter).
It follows that available such speech, the linguistic structure of which makes it easier for the recipient to recognize the information expressed by it. In other words, accessible speech- this is speech is clear.
How do you make speech accessible?
It is also necessary to recall the richest possibilities that are inherent in the Russian language itself - the ramified system of synonymy, polysemy, etc., which allows a person to find and choose the only necessary, correct, understandable word.
However, the ability to clearly, understandably, and freely express one's thoughts is given only to those who know in subtleties the possibilities of the lexical system of their native language, who are constantly developing and improving this knowledge. And if a well-chosen word makes speech intelligible, then an unsuccessful one can spoil any speech: mixing of synonyms, non-differentiation of homonyms, etc. leads not only to inaccuracy of speech, but also to the ambiguity of thought, its inaccessibility.
Of course, accessibility should not be understood as primitiveness. When communicating with a specialist, it is sometimes better to use limited, terminological vocabulary, but well understood by the addressee, than descriptive constructions from common vocabulary to name a special phenomenon.
And, of course, accessibility eliminates idle talk - it is, in fact, a waste of time.
The requirement for accessibility increases especially when there is direct contact with the audience, that is, in oral speech, the structure and specificity of which depends entirely on the characteristics of this audience.
Appropriate speech
Appropriate speech- speech, the linguistic structure of which is adjusted to the conditions of communication. By the terms of communication we mean the place, time, genre and tasks of the communicative process.
By entering into communication - communicating with an interlocutor or speaking in front of an audience, we not only communicate this or that information, but willingly or unwillingly convey our attitude to reality, to the people around us, to the one with whom we speak, to whom we write. At the same time, each of us in the process of communication has his own motivational, linguistic, general cultural, ethnic characteristics associated with our spiritual experience, with those value-personal attitudes that are formed in a particular cultural environment, specific cultural conditions. (Recall that the generally accepted definition culture- state of the art…). It should be emphasized that any act of human communication takes place in certain cultural conditions, since a person is "woven" into ethnocultural life circumstances, which are a prerequisite for a speech act and are realized in it. In psycholinguistics, this process is called speech cultural situation , which is a set of linguistic and non-linguistic environment that affects communicants: their relationships, states, emotions, knowledge, beliefs, etc.
The verbal cultural situation includes three components:
What is described, what constitutes the content, the topic of the statement;
· The one who describes (his experience, knowledge, vision, intellectual level);
· The one for whom it is described: with whom, where, why, we speak / write (the addressee's personality affects the nature of the information).
In a real speech cultural situation, all three components are involved, verbal (verbal) and non-verbal factors. It is not only what is evaluated what it says, but even then how it says what the verbal behavior of each participant in the communication as a whole is. Therefore, relevance occupies a special place in terms of its importance among such qualities as wealth, expressiveness, purity, accuracy, etc. Relevance regulates the content of each of these qualities in a specific speech cultural situation. Without taking into account the specific conditions of communication, without relying on the appropriateness of speech, this or that communicative quality, for example, accuracy or expressiveness, may lose its necessity.
An important point is how our speech will affect the interlocutor - whether it will cause bewilderment, whether it will hurt him with rudeness, whether it will humiliate his dignity.
In this sense, the appropriateness of speech is a very important quality in the regulation of speech and social behavior. Relevance is associated with knowledge of norms of behavior and is determined by this knowledge, which manifests itself in the fact that the committed or planned speech actions correspond to the generally accepted system of assessments, for example, what can be done and what not. Knowledge of the norms of behavior - "interlinear communication". It (this knowledge) organizes the relations of the communicators, their speech behavior.
Speech etiquette
The ability to regulate speech and social behavior lies in speech etiquette- an integral part of the speech and behavioral culture of the speaker (writer). To master it, it is important to understand the essence of speech etiquette.
Speech etiquette is a system of stable expressions that has developed in language and speech, used in situations of establishing and maintaining contact. Speech etiquette is inseparable from politeness, which is especially important in a formal setting and in relationships with strangers. If in communicating with relatives and friends there are many ways to convey your feelings, attitude towards them, then in contact with strangers from the point of view of verbal behavior, politeness presupposes “not harming” speech (non-abuse), showing signs of attention, showing tact, modesty.
Special expressions that bring polite tonality to life: Be kind ... Be kind ... Please ... Could you ...- Impossible without the appropriate intonation of the language material and gestures that convey the speaker's attitude to the addressee and what he is talking about.
In speech etiquette, it is conveyed social information about the speaker and his addressee, about whether they are familiar or not, about relations of equality / inequality in age, official position, about their personal relationships (if they are familiar), about the environment (official or unofficial) of communication, etc. .NS. (For example, Good health! may belong to an elderly villager or Hey! - indicates the friendly, close relationship of young people). In the linguistic signs of speech etiquette, social signals of the type are implemented, and in speech: friend - stranger, familiar - unfamiliar, distant - close, equal - younger - older or position.
Compliance with the rules of etiquette is an unwritten requirement of society and is perceived as a social verbal “stroking”:
◦ Hello–be healthy.◦ Thanks to–thank you…..
In addition, in expressions of speech etiquette, social relations of a particular era :
◦ I beat my forehead, Thank you most humbly. Your humble servant….
The formulas of verbal communication were fixed in proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions:
◦ How many years, how many winters !, Enjoy your bath! ....
Speech etiquette has a bright national coloring , which is dictated by the traditions and mentality of the people, and is sometimes incomprehensible to representatives of other nations or is misunderstood.
Knowledge and skillful selection of the most appropriate etiquette forms and speech expressions constitutes the rules (art) of entering into communication and communication in general.
What are etiquette forms communication and modern courtesy formulas ?
Speech etiquette covers everything that expresses a benevolent attitude towards the interlocutor, which can create a favorable climate of communication. Etiquette forms of communication (official and unofficial) are: address, greeting, apology(as a form of politeness and as an awareness of the inconvenience caused), gratitude, congratulation, wish, sympathy and condolence, approval and compliment, invitation, proposal, request, advice and many others. other Written forms of speech etiquette - letters(congratulatory, business), telegrams, addresses etc.
The most common linguistic unit associated with ethical signs is an appeal to an interlocutor, without whom it is impossible to establish contact. With the help of an appeal, we attract the attention of a person who is nearby, or choose from several present one (or several) as an interlocutor. The main function of addressing the interlocutor is a call, which is combined with vocative intonation. The second important property of the appeal is that it not only calls, but also designates the addressee.
Russian speech etiquette does not allow in the presence of a person to talk about him in a third person - provides for the naming of a third person present during the conversation by name (patronymic).
The ability to situationally correctly use verbal and non-verbal formulas of politeness in your speech, to convey your thought in accordance with the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, the composition of listeners (readers), emotional, moral, aesthetic and other tasks of oral (written) speech - this is the ability apply communicative quality - appropriateness.
Effective speech
The third step in the hierarchical ladder of the communicative qualities of speech is efficacy.
The effectiveness of speech is the third, final stage of speech culture, building on top of the rest and completing the strict stepwise, hierarchical sequence of all nine communicative qualities.
Effective speech- speech, the linguistic structure of which encourages its recipient to change behavior, external (deed, action) or internal (thought, look, mood).
Any communication implies effectiveness. It is the result that is the criterion for the usefulness of communication. Therefore, the fact of the completion of communication is determined by the effectiveness of speech, that is, by a change in behavior (internal, external), the adequacy of the addressee's perception and understanding of the meaning of what was said (written).
Efficiency enhances or weakens the sum of terms - correct speech and communicatively purposeful speech- and depends not only on what kind language and how have been applied, but also on the way to express what information they were used. Ultimately, the choice of the qualities of communicatively expedient speech is determined precisely by its effectiveness and is assessed from the point of view of the effectiveness of the impact of speech on the interlocutor, the audience. Effective speech does not leave indifferent, encourages action, excites in the listener (reader) his own inner word.
Among the techniques that increase the effectiveness and persuasiveness of oral expression, special attention should be paid to the means of speech expression, eye and voice contact, "language of movements", which make speech bright, affecting not only the mind, but also the feelings and emotions of the listeners.
Finding a common language, building a genuine dialogue means not only speaking yourself, but also being able to listen when others speak. This will help to make your own speech appropriate to the speech cultural situation, will make it possible to better understand the interlocutor, more effectively convey your thought to him and, therefore, come to a harmonizing interaction in verbal communication.
* the sign is directed towards the meaning;
* a sign is always a member of the system, and its content largely depends on the place of the given sign in the system.
The main functions of the language are:
* communicative (communication function);
* thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thought);
* expressive (the function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);
* aesthetic (the function of creating beauty by means of language).
Modern Russian literary language is the highest, processed part of the national language, which has written norms.
Russian is the national language of the Russian people, the state language Russian Federation, one of the 6 official languages of the United Nations. It is used by over 250 million people, including about 140 million people in Russia, according to the 1989 all-Union census. The Russian language is among the top ten most spoken languages on the planet. Together with the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, Russian belongs to the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. You can find the similarity of the words of Russian and other Indo-European languages.
Language is a tool, a means of communication. This is a system of signs, means and rules of speaking, common to all members of a given society. This phenomenon is constant for a given period of time.
Speech is the manifestation and functioning of language, the very process of communication; it is unique for every native speaker. This phenomenon is variable depending on the speaker.
Language and speech are two sides of the same phenomenon. Language is inherent in any person, and speech is inherent in a specific person. Speech and language can be compared to pen and text. Language is a pen, and speech is the text that is written with that pen.
Types of speech activity: speaking, listening, writing, reading.
* Speaking is the sending of speech acoustic signals that carry information.
* Hearing (or listening) - the perception of speech acoustic signals and their understanding.
* Letter - encryption of speech signals using graphic symbols.
* Reading - deciphering graphic signs and understanding their meanings.
* Oral speech is any sounding speech. Historically, the oral form of speech is primary, it arose much earlier than writing. The material form of oral speech is sound waves, i.e. pronounced sounds arising from the activity of the human pronunciation organs. Oral speech can be prepared (report, lecture, etc.) and unprepared (conversation, conversation).
* Writing is a human-created auxiliary sign system that is used to capture spoken language and spoken speech. At the same time, writing is an independent communication system, which, fulfilling the function of fixing oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions: written speech makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by a person, expands the sphere of human communication. Reading books, historical documents of different times and peoples, we can touch the history, culture of all mankind. It was thanks to writing that we learned about the great civilizations of Ancient Egypt, the Sumerians, Incas, Mayans, etc.
Communicative speech quality. Purity of speech.
The people around us to a large extent evaluate us by the way we speak. From our speech, our interlocutors conclude who we are, since speech, regardless of the will of the speaker, creates his portrait, reveals the personality of a person. Therefore, the culture of speech is inseparable from the general culture. A person's speech is a kind of passport, which precisely indicates in what environment the speaker grew up and communicates, what is his cultural level, without a culture of speech, one cannot speak of either intelligence or spirituality. Our speech is our calling card. A person's speech can tell a lot about him. Often the speaker cannot correctly and clearly express his thought, explain something, have such an impact on his listeners, to which he himself strives. In this case, everyone understands that this person simply does not know the norms of speech and is not familiar with its communicative qualities. The communicative qualities of good speech is a reference system that helps to correct speech, to make it better. These qualities are called communicative because they are supposed to improve communication. The following communicative qualities of speech are distinguished: correctness, accessibility, accuracy, purity, consistency, relevance, wealth, expressiveness.
Consistency of speech.
Logic is called the communicative quality of speech, which presupposes a clear, precise and consistent statement. The main definitions of the consistency of speech emphasize that speech can be called logical when it complies with the laws of logic. Among the many logical laws, logic singles out four main ones that express the fundamental properties of logical thinking - its definiteness, consistency, consistency and validity. These are the laws of identity, non-contradiction, excluded third and sufficient reason. These laws act primarily in reasoning, i.e. in the process of logical thinking. They need to be known also because these laws help to control the correctness of speech from the point of view of logic both in the process of presenting speech and in the process of its perception. Moreover, it corresponds to the very essence of logic as a tool for testing the truth or falsity of thinking.
* The law of identity says: every thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself, i.e. any thought in the process of reasoning must have a certain stable content so that there is no substitution of the concept.
* The law of consistency is as follows: two judgments incompatible with each other cannot be true at the same time; at least one of them is necessarily false.
* The law of the excluded third (it only acts in relation to conflicting judgments) suggests that: two conflicting judgments cannot be simultaneously false, one of them is necessarily true. For example: Student Kuznetsov performed coursework and Student Kuznetsov did not complete the coursework. If we are talking about the same person, then these judgments contradict each other, which means, according to the law of the excluded third, one of them is true.
* The law of sufficient reason states: every thought is recognized as true if it has a sufficient reason. A sufficient basis for thoughts can be personal experience or another, already verified and established thought (fact, etc.), from which the truth of a given thought necessarily follows.
Accuracy of speech.
Accuracy is usually understood as knowledge of the subject of the statement, the topic of speech (the so-called objective accuracy), and a clear correspondence between the words used in speech and the meanings that are assigned to them in the language (conceptual accuracy).
Impaired speech accuracy:
* Violations of subject accuracy (In the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, Pushkin meets Anna Akhmatova)
* Violations of conceptual accuracy (Parents often face a dilemma: which book to buy their child. The word "dilemma" suggests a global choice between two opposite possibilities)
* Errors in the use of paronyms-words that are similar in sound, but different in meaning (drizzle (rain) and hoarfrost (hoarfrost))
* Violation of the lexical collocation of words (only a nut can be Greek, and only eyes can be brown, and only a friend can be a bosom)
Relevance of speech
Relevance is a special communicative quality of speech, which, as it were, regulates the content of other communicative qualities in a specific language situation. In the context of communication, depending on the specific speech situation, the nature of the message, the purpose of the statement, one or another communicative quality can be assessed in different ways - positively or negatively. The relevance of speech is understood as the strict compliance of its structure with the conditions and tasks of communication, the content of the expressed information, the chosen genre and style of presentation, the individual characteristics of the author and addressee. In linguistic literature recent years it is customary to distinguish stylistic, contextual, situational and personal-psychological relevance or relevance due to: extra-linguistic and intra-linguistic factors.
Richness of speech.
The level of speech culture depends not only on knowledge of the norms of the literary language, the laws of logic and strict adherence to them, but also on the possession of his wealth, the ability to use them in the process of communication. The Russian language is rightfully called one of the richest and most developed languages in the world. Its wealth is in the innumerable stock of vocabulary and phraseology, in the semantic richness of the dictionary, in the limitless possibilities of phonetics, word formation and word combination, in the variety of lexical, phraseological and grammatical synonyms and variants, syntactic constructions and intonations. All this allows you to express the subtlest semantic and emotional nuances. The richness of the speech of an individual is determined by what arsenal of linguistic means he owns and how skillfully, in accordance with the content, topic and task of the utterance, he uses them in a specific situation. Speech is considered the richer, the more widely various means and methods of expressing the same thought, the same grammatical meaning are used in it, the less often it is repeated without a special communicative task, unintentionally the same linguistic unit. The richness of language and speech is determined not only and even not so much by the quantitative indicators of the vocabulary as by the semantic richness of the vocabulary, the wide ramification of the meanings of words. Phraseological combinations have their own, special meaning, which is not derived from the sum of the values of their constituent components, for example: the cat cried a little, carelessly, carelessly. The suffixes of subjective assessment are diverse in the Russian language: they give the words shades of affection, derogation, disdain, irony, sarcasm, familiarity, contempt, etc.
The main sources of richness of speech at the morphological level are synonymy and variability of grammatical forms, as well as the possibility of their use in figurative meaning... These include:
1) variance case forms nouns: a piece of cheese - a piece of cheese, being on vacation - being on vacation, bunkers - bunkers, five grams - five grams and others, characterized by different stylistic colors (neutral or bookish, on the one hand, colloquial - on the other);
2) synonymous case constructions, differing in semantic shades and stylistic connotations: buy for me - buy for me, bring to my brother - bring for my brother, did not open the window - did not open the windows, walk through the forest - walk through the forest;
3) synonymy of short and full forms adjectives with semantic, stylistic and grammatical differences: a clumsy bear - a clumsy bear, a young man - a brave young man, a narrow street - a narrow street;
4) synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives: below - lower, smarter - smarter, smartest - smartest - smartest;
5) synonymy of adjectives and indirect case forms of nouns: library book - a book from the library, university building - university building, laboratory equipment - laboratory equipment, Yesenin's poems - Yesenin's poems;
6) variance in combinations of numerals with nouns: with two hundred inhabitants - residents, three students - three students, two generals - two generals;
7) sinonimija pronouns (eg, every - every - any; something that -koe-What-What-ever-ever, someone-who-nibud- someone; someone -nekto; some - some - some - some - some);
8) the possibility of using one form of number in the meaning of another, some pronouns or verb forms in the meaning of others, i.e. grammatical and semantic transfers, in which additional semantic shades and expressive coloring usually appear. For example, the use of the pronoun we in the meaning of you or you to express sympathy, empathy: Here we (you, you) have already stopped crying (using we in the meaning of I).
Expressiveness of speech.
The expressiveness of speech is understood as such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what was said (written), arouse and support the addressee's attention and interest, and influence not only his mind, but also his feelings and imagination. One of the main conditions for expressiveness is the autonomy of thinking of the author of the speech, which presupposes deep and comprehensive knowledge and comprehension of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing, effective. If the author does not think over the content of his statement properly, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive. To a large extent, the expressiveness of speech also depends on the author's attitude to the content of the utterance. The inner conviction of the speaker (writer) in the significance of the statement, interest, indifference to its content gives speech (especially oral) an emotional coloring. An indifferent attitude towards the content of the statement leads to an impassive presentation of the truth, which cannot affect the feelings of the addressee. One of the prerequisites for speech expressiveness is the skills that allow you to easily choose the language means needed in a specific act of communication. Such skills are developed as a result of systematic and deliberate training. A means of training speech skills is an attentive reading of exemplary texts (artistic, journalistic, scientific), a keen interest in their language and style, an attentive attitude to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one's speech in terms of its expressiveness ). The expressive means of language usually include tropes (figurative use of linguistic units) and stylistic figures, calling them pictorial and expressive means. However, the expressive capabilities of the language are not limited to this; in speech, any unit of language of all its levels (even a single sound), as well as non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) can become a means of expressiveness.
Orthoepic norms.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation. Compliance with orthoepic norms is an important part of the culture of speech, because their violation creates an unpleasant impression on the listeners about the speech and the speaker himself, distracts from the perception of the speech content. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of stresses. Intonational norms are described in "Russian grammar" and Russian textbooks.
Morphological norms.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inappropriate inflectional form (the analyzed image, the reigning order, the victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railroad rail, imported shampoo, customized parcel, patent leather shoes. In these phrases, a morphological error was made - the gender of nouns was incorrectly formed.
Syntactic norms.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of the basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include the rules for the coordination of words and syntactic control, correlating parts of a sentence with each other using grammatical forms of words in order to make the sentence a literate and meaningful utterance. There is a violation of syntactic norms in the following examples: reading it, a question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; After marrying his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Formal and business style.
Official business style is a functional style of speech, an environment of verbal communication in the sphere of official relations: in the sphere of legal relations and management. This area covers international relations, jurisprudence, economics, the military industry, advertising, communication in official institutions, government activities.
The business style is used for communication, informing in an official setting (the sphere of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). This style serves for registration of documents: laws, orders, decrees, characteristics, protocols, receipts, certificates. The scope of the official business style is law, the author is a lawyer, jurist, diplomat, or just a citizen. Works in this style are addressed to the state, citizens of the state, institutions, employees, etc., in order to establish administrative and legal relations.
This style exists more often in writing, the type of speech is predominantly reasoning. The type of speech is most often a monologue, the type of communication is public.
Stylish features - imperativeness (due character), accuracy, not allowing two interpretations, standardization (strict composition of the text, accurate selection of facts and ways of presenting them), lack of emotionality.
The main function of the official business style is informational (information transfer). It is characterized by the presence of speech cliches, the generally accepted form of presentation, the standard presentation of the material, the wide use of terminology and nomenclature names, the presence of complex unabbreviated words, abbreviations, verbal nouns, the predominance of direct word order.
Peculiarities:
1) conciseness;
2) standard material arrangement;
3) wide use of terminology;
4) frequent use of verbal nouns, complex alliances, as well as various stable phrases;
5) the narrative nature of the presentation, the use of nominative sentences with a listing;
6) direct word order in a sentence as the predominant principle of its construction;
7) the tendency to use complex sentences reflecting the logical subordination of some facts to others;
8) almost complete absence of emotionally expressive speech means;
9) weak individualization of style.
Journalistic style.
Journalistic style- a functional style of speech that is used in genres: article, essay, reportage, feuilleton, interview, pamphlet, oratorical speech.
The journalistic style serves to influence people through the media (newspapers, magazines, television, posters, booklets). It is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, consistency, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal. It widely uses, in addition to neutral, high, solemn vocabulary and phraseology, emotionally colored words, the use of short sentences, chopped prose, non-verbal phrases, rhetorical questions, exclamations, repetitions, etc. special vocabulary requiring explanation. On the other hand, a number of topics are in the center of public attention, and the vocabulary related to these topics acquires a journalistic connotation. Among such topics, it is worth highlighting politics, economics, education, health care, forensics, military topics.
The journalistic style is characterized by the use of evaluative vocabulary with a strong emotional coloring.
This style is used in the field of political, ideological, social and cultural relations. The information is intended not for a narrow circle of specialists, but for wide strata of society, and the impact is directed not only to the mind, but also to the senses of the addressee.
Functions of the journalistic style:
* Informational - striving to inform people about the latest news as soon as possible
* Influencing - the desire to influence the opinion of people
Speech Objective:
* affect mass consciousness
* call to action
* communicate information
The vocabulary has a pronounced emotional and expressive coloring, includes colloquial, vernacular and slang elements. The vocabulary characteristic of the journalistic style can also be used in other styles: in the official-business, scientific. But in the journalistic style, it acquires a special function - to create a picture of events and convey to the addressee the journalist's impressions of these events.
Oral public speech. The speaker and his audience. The main types of arguments. Preparing and conducting a public speech.
THE SPEAKER AND HIS AUDIENCE
Orator (from Lat. Orator, orare - "to speak") - one who makes a speech, speaks with a speech, as well as one who has the gift of making speeches, eloquence. Skillful construction of speech and its public utterance in order to achieve a certain result and the desired impact on the audience is oratory. Human society is built on communication. Everyone can speak, but not everyone can speak beautifully, intelligibly, clearly, fascinatingly and interestingly, and not everyone can confidently stand in front of an audience. Skillful command of the word, competent presentation of the material, the ability to stand in front of the public are only part of what an orator should have. Being in the center of attention, the speaker must be able to attract attention with his appearance, and his natural data, and the manner of speaking and holding. As a rule, a professional speaker is an erudite, highly intelligent person who is fluent in literature and art, as well as in science and technology, as well as in politics and modern device society. To count on the attention and respect of the listening audience, the speaker must have certain skills and abilities. Let's list some of them:
1) confident statement during any communication;
2) the ability to speak on any topic;
3) the ability to accurately express their thoughts;
4) the use of active vocabulary, the ability to use various speech techniques;
5) the ability to argue and convince. Oratory is a dialogical connection, on the one hand of which the speaker directly acts, and on the other hand, the listener, or audience.
The audience is a community of people, which acts as a single socio-psychological group. The following features are characteristic of the listening audience:
1) homogeneity (heterogeneity), that is, the difference in gender, age, level of education, interests of listeners;
2) the quantitative composition of those present;
3) a sense of community (a sign that manifests itself in a certain emotional mood of the audience, when the audience applauds or, on the contrary, expresses dissatisfaction);
4) the motive of the listeners' actions. People attend lectures for a variety of reasons. According to psychologists, there are three groups of points:
a) intellectual and cognitive plan (when people come because the topic itself is of interest);
b) moral plan (requires the presence of a person);
c) emotional and aesthetic plan (when people come because they are interested in the speaker, his speeches, his demeanor, etc.).
That is why the audience has a different attitude to the perception of the speech.
MAIN TYPES OF ARGUMENTS
The goal of the speaker is to influence, to one degree or another, the interlocutor, opponent. He must be able to convince him that he is right. To do this, it is necessary to use such words and expressions that are capable of evoking certain feelings and thoughts. Emotional speech, expressive reasoning, visual examples can be persuasive in and of themselves. You must be able to prove and defend your point of view. To do this, you need to be sure of the veracity of this or that judgment, thesis. To be able to prove, you must be able to argue your arguments. Evidence is direct and indirect. With direct evidence, arguments are given in support or refutation of certain statements.
Argument - this is a theoretical or factual position, with the help of which the thesis is substantiated.
The arguments of the evidence can be:
1) previously proven laws of science (chemistry, physics, biology, theorems of mathematics, etc.);
2) obvious statements that do not require proof (axioms and postulates);
3) factual material, in which approximate information is unacceptable (statistical data on the population of the state, witness testimony, signatures of a person on a document, scientific facts).
It should be noted the role of facts (including scientific), which is very great in proving and substantiating certain positions. There are various classifications of arguments. The main classification is one in which arguments are divided into logical and psychological.
Logical arguments are arguments addressed to the mind of the audience, the listener. Consistency and logic of reasoning depend on how carefully selected and analyzed the source material, how clearly the arguments are presented. Each thesis of the speech must be carefully reasoned, insufficiently strong, dubious arguments are excluded as destructive evidence.
Often the speaker uses arguments that appeal to the feelings of the listeners, using tactics of psychological influence. Such arguments are called psychological.
Psychological arguments are arguments that appeal to the feelings of the audience, listeners. The speaker's speech is replete with emotional comparisons and colorful examples. When referring to psychological arguments, one should not speculate on the feelings and emotions of people, this can cause a conflict between the parties.
The methods of influencing the audience do not exist in isolation from each other. They complement each other. Logical thinking, for example, can be supported by techniques that influence feelings, desires, etc. Both types of arguments are used consciously by a skilled speaker.
PREPARATION OF A SPEECH: SELECTING A TOPIC, PURPOSE OF SPEECH, SEARCHING FOR MATERIAL, STARTING, DEPLOYING AND ENDING A SPEECH
Prepare your speech in advance. It is important for the author to think over the content, it is necessary to assess their possibilities of presenting the material to the public. When preparing a speech, it is necessary to take into account certain points, namely:
1) type of speech;
2) the topic of the speech;
3) the goals and objectives that the speaker sets for himself;
4) the audience.
The rhetoric covers the following stages of preparation for a speech:
1) choice of theme;
2) specifying the goals of the statement;
3) study of the material on the topic;
4) preparation of a speech in expanded form;
5) completion of the speech (summing up);
6) complete mastery of the material.
The initial stage of choosing a topic is one of the most important stages in preparing a speech. The presenter can choose the topic himself, or he can use the suggestions of the meeting organizers. You should choose a topic that will be interesting and exciting, relevant. The speaker should highlight the problem in such a way that both he and the audience can learn something new from a specific speech.
It is necessary to concretize the goal both for yourself and for the entire audience. It is important that the topic corresponds to the level of training and education of a particular audience. It is important not only and not so much to present the material, but also to show your attitude to the problem, formulate your own conclusions and arguments, try to evoke a response from the audience, perhaps not yet in the form of a speech or dialogue at a meeting, but, at least, in the form of readiness and striving to show activity and independence.
Collecting and studying material is the next stage in preparing for a speech. Scientific and fiction literature, reference books and encyclopedias, newspapers and magazines can be sources of material. But do not equate the collection of material and the collection of information. After all, the study of the material is not so much reading various books as defining one's own thoughts and ideas on a specific issue. It is also very important to draw up an outline, writing out interesting points, etc. It should be remembered that the speech consists of an introduction (beginning), a main (main) part and a conclusion (completion of the speech).
In the main part of the speech, the speaker sets out the main provisions on the problem, highlighting various points of view, revealing his own vision of the issue.
In conclusion, the speaker makes certain conclusions, answers the questions that arose during the speech.
Speech technique.
A person's voice makes a certain impression on others, serves as an instrument of influence. By the nature of the speech sound, we judge the temperament, attitude of the speaker. The sound design of the speech constitutes the emotional background of the speech, conversation, which can be positive (pleasant) or negative (unpleasant). Pronunciation deficiencies (loudness, shortness of breath, hoarseness, harshness, larynx, nasal, odd articulation) are “barriers” to communication exchange, “cut the ear”. In addition, a good-sounding voice tones the nervous system of the speaker himself, gives confidence, and creates a mood.
Speech defects are very persistent. From everyday speech they often "migrate" to public, to business communication. However, a formal setting, as opposed to a relaxed one, requires voice control, mastery of the full style of pronunciation, that is, intelligible pronunciation at an average pace. For example, the phrases “hello”, “she says” in the full style sound like this: [hello], [Ùna gÙvurit], and in the incomplete one there is a strong reduction (reduction of vowels), sometimes even the omission of syllables: [hello] , [Ù on grit].
Thus, speech techniques include:
Phonation breathing that empowers the voice
Diction - distinct pronunciation of each sound and sound combinations
Intonation - rhythmic-melodic and logical division of speech intonation:
Inside phase pauses
To own speech technique means to achieve intonational mobility and expressiveness, soft, free, clear sound; be able to use the nuances of the timbre.
Intonation training includes:
Intonation scan of punctuation marks
Working on the tempo and style of speech
Various types of pauses: physiological, grammatical, meaningful, psycholinguistic, which allow expressing an emotional attitude to the text.
As well as phonetic culture:
Correct pronunciation of words
Correct stress in words
Let's characterize the human pronunciation apparatus, which consists of four parts: respiratory organs, vibrators, resonators, articulators. The respiratory organs (muscles) allow air to be drawn in and out of the lungs.
On the way of the passage of the air stream through the larynx are the vocal cords - vibrators. These are elastic formations located on the left and right sides of the larynx and stretched from front to back. The anterior ends of the ligaments are at an angle to each other. The voice is created as a result of periodic vibrations of these speech muscles, which draw closer and tighten. It is in the larynx that the sound wave is born. Then it enters the resonators (nasopharynx, nasal and oral cavity), which amplify and enrich the sound. The work is completed by articulators: tongue, lips, lower jaw, soft palate. They transform the musical tone (voice) into speech sounds in the native language.
All parts of the vocal apparatus are involved in creating acoustic characteristics: tempo, volume, pitch, timbre, clarity and clarity of pronunciation.
Verbal communication.
Verbal communication is the process of establishing and maintaining purposeful, direct or indirect contact between people using language. Verbal communication can be formal and informal, public and non-public. The appeal to one or another type of speech communication is set by the situation and, of course, by the individual characteristics of the speakers and listeners.
Language as a sign system. The main functions of the language. Modern Russian literary language. Russian language among other languages of the world. Language and speech. Types of speech activity. Oral and written form of speech.
The language used by a person is a complex sign system. Understanding the sign properties of the language is necessary in order to better understand the structure of the language and the rules for its use. The words of the human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main signs in the language. Other units of the language are also signs. A sign is a substitute for an object for the purpose of communication, a sign allows the speaker to evoke an image of an object or concept in the mind of the interlocutor. The sign has the following properties:
* the sign must be material, perceptible;
* the sign is directed towards the meaning;
Lecture 2
Communicative speech quality
1.Voice communication
2. Qualities of good speech: relevance, correctness, purity, precision, clarity, brevity, richness, expressiveness
1. Communication ( lat. I make it common, I connect) - purposeful interaction of people. The main means of communication is speech, i.e. the activity itself (speaking, listening, writing, reading) and its result (utterance, text).
Speech communication consists of a speech event, speech situation and speech interaction. A speech event is understood as speech and communication conditions.
A speech situation is a situation in which an utterance is generated. The components of the speech situation are the time and place of the statement, as well as the participants in the communication (speaker and listener). The rules for conducting a conversation and the nature of statements depend on the speech situation.
Speech interaction is the interaction of the speaker and the listener, which is carried out on the basis of knowledge of the subject of speech (reality) and the language that allows information to be transmitted. The center of communicative interaction is an utterance that is based on extralinguistic factors (knowledge of the subject of speech, the object of reality) and on the language code.
Building an utterance, taking into account the speech situation and the communicative goal, is the key to successful communication.
Communicative speech quality (quality of good speech)
The communicative qualities of speech (the quality of good speech) are the properties of speech that ensure optimal communication between the parties, i.e. the relative unity of the addressee's intention and the addressee's perception of the speech work. The addressee (author) formalizes his intention in speech, the addressee perceives the speech and deciphers the author's intention.
Correctness of speech- the communicative quality that arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and language. The correctness of speech is the compliance of its linguistic structure with the current linguistic norms: norms of pronunciation, word formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic and stylistic.
Accuracy of speech- an important communicative quality that ensures understanding of the speaker's thoughts by the interlocutor. Speech can be considered accurate if it corresponds to reality (objective accuracy) and the author's intention (conceptual accuracy). Speech becomes accurate only when the author of the speech, on the one hand, knows exactly what and what exactly he wants to say, what he wants to achieve with his speech, and on the other hand, on the basis of a conscious understanding of his speech task, he selects from all possible linguistic and speech means are those that allow you to most successfully solve this problem.
In the book of O.A. Baeva "Oratory and Business Communication" gives an interesting example that shows how important the accuracy of speech is. During the Great Patriotic War, the radio operator sent the message "The Germans are Coming Back!" To the headquarters. The headquarters realized that the Nazis were retreating. The radio operator used the word "back" to mean "again", as a result of which the Soviet fighters, left without reinforcements, were defeated.
Mixing paronyms can also lead to a violation of the accuracy of speech. For example, the expression "This method has been approved" means "This method has been approved." If the speaker uses such a formulation in order to communicate that this method has been used in practice, the accuracy of speech is violated, since the expressed meaning does not correspond to the author's thought.
Consistency of speech - communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and thinking. Speech that corresponds to the laws of logic can be called logical.
Identity law reads: every thought of the text, when repeated, must have a definite, stable content. Thought in the process of reasoning should be identical with itself.
The following errors at the level of the logic of concepts are associated with the violation of this law:
Substitution of the concept (full and partial): The language of Sholokhov's heroes differs from all other heroes;
Unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept (The reason is the confusion of generic and specific concepts): We read the works and poems of A.S. Pushkin;
The vagueness of the distinction between concrete and abstract concepts: The students read the ideas of this politician;
Comparison of logically heterogeneous concepts: Looking for a husband. I am still young. Height is high, the waist is thin. The farm also has a tractor (ad).
Typical mistakes at the level of the logic of judgments are the vagueness of the topic; slipping off the topic (substitution of the subject of presentation, inconsistency of the answer to the question, argument - thesis, inconsistency of the title with the topic of the text); skipping a semantic link ( Apartment for rent with a child).
The consistency and consistency of the text is ensured the law of consistency, the essence of which is that two opposite judgments about the same object, taken in the same relation (the object is characterized from the same point of view) at the same time, cannot be simultaneously true. One of the statements is false.
The law of contradiction is violated in the sentence This story has been going on for almost a year. It began in 1998. (Publication 2005).
The excluded third law helps to determine which of the opposite judgments is true. The excluded third law is formulated thus : of two opposite judgments about the same subject, taken simultaneously in the same respect, one is certainly true. There is no third.
The law of sufficient reason is thata true thought must be substantiated by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven.
The discrepancy between the premise and the effect is observed in the following text: The forest was quiet. Nearby, an oriole sang in a ringing voice, flying from tree to tree. Somewhere far away an invisible cuckoo was crowing.
The relevance of speech - the communicative quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of language means to the conditions of communication. The appropriateness of the speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, the composition of listeners or readers, informational, educational, aesthetic and other tasks of a written or oral presentation. Relevance of speech covers different levels of the language(use of phrases, grammatical categories and forms, syntactic structures and whole compositional speech systems).
Distinguish between the appropriateness of speech text and situational. Textual relevance lies in the appropriateness of using a particular speech means in a specific statement. Speech means should correspond to the genre and functional style of the text. For example, words and expressions of the official business style in colloquial speech are inappropriate: Due to lack of discipline, our class did not go to the cinema.... K. Chukovsky, struggling with bureaucracy, in his book "Alive as Life" gives the following example: A student bends over a crying girl: "What question are you crying about?"
Situational relevance- the correspondence of speech to the situation of communication, which is manifested in the construction of an utterance, taking into account the interests of the addressee, the level of his education, mood, etc.
Richness of speech- the communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and language. The richness of speech is understood as the varied use of linguistic means in speech to achieve the goal of communication. The richness of speech depends on the active and passive vocabulary of a person. Under active vocabulary the set of words that are used in speech is understood. Under passive vocabulary- a set of words that are understandable to a native speaker, but he does not use them or uses them very rarely, as a rule, in prepared speech. Words from a passive vocabulary can be translated into active vocabulary through regular use in prepared speech. The richness of speech is achieved by striving to diversify your speech, observing the speech of other people, reading books, etc.
The richness of speech depends on the level of language proficiency and on the content of the speech. Intonational richness expressed in oral speech: in changing the tempo of speech, voice volume, timbre, etc. Intonation allows you to express emotions: there is an interrogative, narrative, exclamatory intonation, with the help of intonation semantic relations between segments of a sentence are expressed: intonation of clarification, explanation, enumeration, opposition, comparison, etc. Intonation is an important means of logical stress, which is necessary to highlight a piece of text.
Intonation allows you to convey many meanings using the same lexical and grammatical means. For example, the expression "Wonderful!" can sound both enthusiastic and ironic. Intonational richness is closely related to lexical, semantic and syntactic richness.
Lexical richness manifests itself in the use of non-repeating linguistic means that carry a semantic load. The lexical richness of speech depends on the vocabulary of the participants in communication. Lexical richness also reflects the informative richness of the text, i.e. saturation with the thoughts, feelings of the author.
Grammatical richness- a variety of morphological and syntactic means that are used in speech.
Semantic richness- a wealth of meanings that can be expressed in speech using linguistic means. Semantic richness is created by combining words with each other. The basis of semantic richness is the richness of additional emotional, evaluative, stylistic, associative meanings.
The richness of speech means not only the variety of linguistic means, but also their relevance and expediency.
Poverty of speech can manifest itself in the following: 1) in the inappropriate repetition of the same word in a small text; 2) in the use of adjacent or closely related words (the writer wrote this work for ten years); 3) in the uniformity of syntactic constructions:
The richness of speech allows you to select words based on the audience. The richness of speech helps to make speech clear, concise, and precise.
Clarity of speech
Clarity of speech is the communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and its perception. Speech is clear, the meaning of which is understood by the addressee without difficulty. Accuracy and consistency are key to clarity of speech.
Clarity of speech is such a communicative quality that always depends on the addressee, his erudition, education, etc. What can lead to ambiguity in speech?
Inaccurate word usage can lead to ambiguity ( The cart is shaking on the cobblestone of the dirt road. Dirt road - unpaved road, unpaved road), the use of two conflicting words in one sentence ( very pretty; exactly, probably), skipping the semantic link ( Apartment for rent with a child).
The reason for the ambiguity may also be the use of terms unknown to the addressee. Therefore, in educational and scientific texts, the meaning of terms is given in the main text or in footnotes, a post-text dictionary, etc. In journalism, a descriptive explanation, a figurative analogy, and the use of a synonym are possible. Speech practice has developed several ways to explain words.
The most rational way of interpreting words is considered logical definition(definition), i.e. definition of the concept through the closest genus and species difference. For example, Logic is the science of the laws and forms of correct thinking... First of all, the genus of the defined concept is called, an answer is given to the question "what is it?" - the science... Then the signs of a species concept of the same genus are indicated - about the laws and forms of correct thinking.
Common is synonymous way, i.e. explanation using the selection of synonyms or a whole synonymous series: restoration restoration, confrontation - opposition, confrontation, clash... This method allows through a word familiar to listeners to reveal the meaning of a new term for them, a concept.
In some cases it is advisable to use descriptive way, in which the meaning of a word is conveyed through the description of the object itself, concept, phenomenon. Often, the speaker puts his understanding of this concept into such an interpretation.
When interpreting a word, it is useful to refer to its origin, etymology... This allows a deeper understanding of the essence of the words used, their exact meaning, and the scope of their application. No wonder the term "etymology" itself comes from two Greek words: etymon - "true, true" and logos - "meaning." Unmotivated use of jargon, dialectic, neologisms and obsolete words... The understanding of these words is highly context dependent (context plays an explanatory role).
B.S. Muchnik identifies the following errors that lead to a violation of the clarity of speech: a shift in logical stress, a misunderstanding of the meaning of a word form, an erroneous semantic connection of words and an erroneous semantic separation of words.
Logical stress is the intonational emphasis of a word, the meaning of which must be emphasized in the statement. How is logical stress conveyed in writing? Used by positional way, i.e. moving a word to a stressed position in a sentence. This position is the end of the sentence and the position before the comma, parenthesis, dash.
Boolean stress can be conveyed lexically: with emitting particles and, precisely, even in a position before the word that needs to be highlighted in the sentence ( He didn't even know it); clarifying synonyms (the second of the two adjacent synonyms is perceived as shock: We cannot, we have no right to forget about it. The logical stress is perceived on the second of the two synonyms, since at the moment of reading the first synonym, we still do not know what will happen next); adverbs of measure and degree ( very, extremely, very, absolutely, absolutely etc.), repetition of the same word ( We, we have to do it) or cognate words ( She ate her stepdaughter at a meal), oppositions ( This book is not here, but there).
To convey logical stress on the letter, and graphic tools: font (italic), aku't (accent mark), exclamation mark in brackets, dash (where, according to the rules of punctuation, it should not be: Class - rejoiced - no one knows why). If the listed means are not used to highlight a word in a sentence, then the statement may be unclear when reading it for the first time ( Davydov's speeches are striking in their logic and clarity of argumentation. Telling the people the truth, even the most bitter, was the law for Davydov).
A misunderstanding of the meaning of a word form can lead to ambiguity in speech: "Mother loves daughter"(Is the word "mother" a subject in a sentence or an object?) , "What gives rise to such a choice?"(What are the reasons for such a choice? Or What are the consequences of such a choice?).
Very often, when reading a sentence, an erroneous semantic connection is established between words, i.e. a connection that does not correspond to the intention of the author.
In which sentences do these kinds of errors occur?
1. In constructions with the union word "which": We bought flowers for our parents, which we really liked.
2.In constructions with a genitive case: We read the description of Ilya Ehrenburg's fascist atrocities.
3. In constructions with an adverbial turnover: People were evacuated from the hall, fearing a collapse of the ceiling.
4. In constructions with participial turns: Dozens of university students educational institutions aimed at agricultural work did not arrive at their destination.
5. In sentences with homogeneous members: They wished him to get rid of the disease and a long life.
6. In constructions with the union word "where": Sergei Ivanovich was sitting in a room with a book, which he took on the dresser, where it was cold and uncomfortable.
To eliminate the erroneous semantic connection of words, it is necessary:
§ bring together the elements that should be related in meaning;
§ insert a meaningful word between the elements of an erroneous semantic connection;
§ replace one of the elements of an erroneous semantic connection with a synonym;
§ to split the sentence at the place of occurrence of an erroneous semantic connection. Submit two separate proposals.
In addition to the erroneous semantic connection of words, sometimes it happens about erroneous semantic separation of words, those. the reader or listener does not unite the words that were united in the mind of the writer or speaker: It was cold in the wintering house, the heat was kept only as long as the stove was heated.(S. Voronin. In the taiga).
Brevity of speech- the communicative quality of speech, which consists in the proportionality of the content of the speech to its volume. This communicative quality is violated if the speaker or writer has a poor vocabulary, which leads to unjustified repetitions of speech ( Twenty students gathered. At the same time we saw two people at once), the use of unnecessary words in search of the right one. Violation of the brevity of speech can be associated with a lack of thoughts, ignorance of the subject of speech and the desire to speak beautifully at the same time (For example, a student's answer on an exam to a question that is poorly studied).
Expressiveness of speech- This is the communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and aesthetics. Expressiveness of speech is necessary to attract the attention of listeners, readers to the subject of speech.
The expressiveness of speech exists in two varieties: logical and emotional. The first is typical for "strict" styles of speech - official, business and scientific, the second - for journalistic, artistic, colloquial speech. Within the limits of the second type, such a quality of speech as depiction is distinguished - the creation of visual-sensory images by means of language and speech. Both logical and emotional expressiveness can be realized in an open and hidden way. Open consists in the use of intonation and lexical means, i.e. external techniques, the hidden method involves special grammatical means - laconicism, the placement of material in the text, the construction of sentences.
The expressiveness of speech is supported by special linguistic and speech means, which include tropes and figures of speech. Paths are means of expression based on the transfer of meaning and, as a result, the combination of meanings in the same form. The generally accepted and new meanings are combined, and an image arises - a non-standard, expressive representation of what is designated. The most common trails are as follows.
Metaphor- the main trope, which consists in transferring the properties of one object to another according to the principle of their similarity:
Impersonation - verbal image of an inanimate object in the form of a living thing: prices are rising.
Metonymy - the main trope of contiguity, the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the contiguity of concepts: oil conflict instead of oil conflict.
Synecdoche - a kind of metonymy based on quantitative relations, replacing the name of the whole with the name of the part and vice versa: labor penny saves the ruble.
Hyperbola- a trope based on deliberate exaggeration: The table is bursting with food.
Litotes- a path of deliberate understatement: Not a penny left in the treasury.
Irony- a trope in which a word or phrase acquires a meaning opposite to its literal meaning. Irony can be conveyed through intonation, as well as the context in which the utterance is used. Irony is often used in the fables of I.A. Krylova: Where, clever, are you wandering, head?(Appeal to Donkey). Irony is a common technique in colloquial speech: Original! You couldn't think of it better! What a creative approach!
Allegory - allegory, expanded assimilation, forming a system of hints; from the socially recognized allegories, the symbolism characteristic of a given society is formed: on the example of fables, images-symbols of industriousness, thriftiness - a bee, power - a lion, etc. were formed.
Periphrase- replacement of a word with a descriptive expression: northern capital instead of Petersburg.
If a new name appears as a synonym for a name already existing in the language and imagery is the meaning of its creation, then the wide use of the figurative nomination can lead to its negative perception, which is denoted by the term "stamp". For example, the expressions black gold(oil), people in white coats(doctors), etc.
Figures of speech are techniques based on the juxtaposition of linguistic units in the text, i.e. special ways of constructing a sentence. Figures of speech are divided into two types - semantic and syntactic. Semantic figures of speech are formed by the juxtaposition of words, phrases or larger pieces of text related to each other by similarity, opposition, incompatibility, increase or decrease in the intensity of meaning. These include the following figures of speech.
Comparison - differs from a trope (metaphor) in that both compared components are indicated in the comparison: Advertising is like a deal: product information is the product, and viewer time is money.
Antithesis- opposition: Strong governor - big rights, weak governor - no rights... Antithesis has good expressive properties and is often used to structure the entire text.
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2015-2020 lektsii.org - 1
The description of the study confirming the importance in the structure of civic-mindedness as an integrative quality of the personality of the subject of the information society, such (civic) components as communicative qualities and communication skills. An algorithm for the activity of schoolchildren in the creation of information products of civilian topics is presented. The features of the organization of the activities of four groups of schoolchildren to create information products are described, which were formed by the teacher-curator according to the principle of common diagnostic results, which revealed the level of formation of civic knowledge, communication qualities, communication skills, as well as the presence and characteristics of experience in creating an information product. The results of the study confirm that communicative qualities and communication skills are necessary for a schoolchild at every stage of creating an information product, while this type of activity contributes to the formation of civic consciousness of schoolchildren as subjects of the information society.
civil information product
information product creation activity
communication skills
communicative qualities
citizenship
1. Danilyuk A.Ya., Kondakova A.M., Tishkov V.A. The concept of spiritual and moral development and education of the personality of a citizen of Russia. - M .: Education, 2009 .-- 23 p.
2. Kapustina Z. Ya. "Self-concept" and the formation of citizenship // Education and society. - 2005. - No. 1. URL: http://www.jeducation.ru/1_2005/75.html.
3. Mukhina V.S. Age-related psychology. - 10th ed. - M .: Academy, 2012. - S. 17–28.
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5. Sokolov A.V. General theory of social communication: textbook. allowance. - SPb .: Publishing house of Mikhailov V.A., 2002. - P. 9–36.
6. Strategy for the development of education in the Russian Federation for the period until 2025: Order of the Government of the Russian Federation of May 29, 2015, N 996-r // Rossiyskaya Gazeta. - 2015 .-- June 8. URL: https://rg.ru/2015/06/08/vospitanie-dok.html (date of access: 17.01.17).
7. Federal State educational standard of basic general education (with amendments and additions): Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of December 31, 2015 N1577 "On amendments to the Federal State educational standard of basic general education, approved by order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of December 17, 2010 . N 1897 "; URL: http://base.garant.ru/55170507/ (date of access: 17.01.17).
The priority in the field of upbringing of schoolchildren today is "the development of a highly moral person who shares Russian traditional spiritual values, has relevant knowledge and skills, and is able to realize his potential in a modern society." One of the leading basic national values of modern Russia, according to the Federal State Standard of Basic General Education, the Concept of Spiritual and Moral Development and Upbringing of the Personality of a Citizen of Russia, and other fundamental regulatory legal acts in the field of education, is citizenship, the integrative quality of the individual. In this regard, the social order for upbringing, which is formed on the basis of the needs of society with the aim of transforming it, sets before the modern school certain tasks related to the upbringing of a competent citizen of Russia.
Adhering to the point of view that the content of the concept of "Citizenship" is due to socio-historical transformations, is determined by the period of development of statehood, the dominant ideology, secular or religious worldview, the level of development of society in general and pedagogical science in particular, we consider the civic consciousness of modern schoolchildren as a personal quality of subjects of information society, that is, a society in which information becomes a product and main value. The term "Information Society", according to generally accepted views in science, we designate the stage of historical development, the transition to which is provided by the special role of information in all aspects of the life of society, a qualitatively new level of production, processing and dissemination of information. Modern schoolchildren, like adults employed in production, should be involved in the processes of searching, processing and storing information. They are active users of the global information space, providing access to various information resources, which is a way to meet the needs of members of the information society for information and information services. Thus, while engaging in the formation of civic consciousness of modern schoolchildren, teachers must create conditions for the development of personality traits that "meet the requirements of the information society, innovative economy, and the tasks of building a Russian civil society."
The structure of civic consciousness, as an integrative quality of an individual, a subject of an information society, in our opinion, is represented by the following components: civic consciousness, which includes civic knowledge and beliefs; civic qualities, such as spiritual and moral, moral and volitional, communicative, along with communication skills; civic position, which is made up of civic behavior, experience of socially significant activities and reflection. These components are interrelated and conditional in relation to each other. They have three components of personality: cognitive-value, emotional-volitional and reflexive-activity.
The communicative qualities and communication skills deserve special attention in the structure of civic-mindedness as a personality trait of the subject of the information society. By the term communicative qualities we denote the qualities necessary for the organization productive communication, such as accuracy of speech, consistency, expressiveness, clarity and accessibility, sociability, benevolence, empathy, openness, initiative, tact, flexibility. Communication skills, on the other hand, manifest themselves in activities related to the processing, storage and dissemination of information. It is the communicative qualities, along with communication skills, that allow schoolchildren, as subjects of the information society, to express their civic position, their civic convictions in various ways, including in activities related to the processing, storage and dissemination of information. This opinion is shared by Z.Ya. Kapustina. The scientist draws attention to the fact that among the qualities of a citizen's personality should be: the acquisition of a positive personal, social and emotional experience of communication; differentiated perception of information; as well as the need for the development and generalization of available communication skills. Citizenship as a personality trait, according to Z.Ya. Kapustina, can be formed under the condition of building (with the help of a teacher or independently) moral communications, that is, the exchange of information of moral and ethical content. The scientist believes that “a person appears as a Citizen when he is included in a social situation in which he must actively and freely defend his position,” including using certain communicative qualities and communication skills, skills, experience, becoming a subject of the process of social communication. Social communication is understood by us, according to the definition of V.A. Sokolov as a movement of knowledge, emotional experiences, volitional influences in social time and space. Examples of such communication can be a friendly conversation, and a school lesson, and business communication, and a TV show, and computer search for information.
Communicative qualities and communication skills manifest themselves, first of all, in speech communication, which is a part of linguistic reality. Based on the views of V.S. Mukhina, Z. Ya. Kapustina, we adhere to the point of view that linguistic reality is one of the historically conditioned realities (along with the reality of social space, the reality of the objective world and natural space), which influences the degree of development of citizenship. This is a special reality in which a person develops, becomes, is realized and exists. “Language acts as a means of forming and expressing solidarity, understanding, cooperation, agreement. He is a source of deep attitudes towards the value attitude towards the world around him: people, nature, Motherland, towards himself, the language itself, "Z.Ya. Kapustina.
In the formation of the civic consciousness of schoolchildren, the word as an attribute of linguistic reality can become not only a tool for influencing pupils, but also a means of carrying out activities in which pupils will be included. For example, in the activity of creating information products. By the term information product, we denote the result of intellectual, creative activity, provided by the aggregate of data formed by the manufacturer for distribution in material or immaterial form. An example of information products created by schoolchildren and contributing to the formation of their citizenship can be a collection of memoirs of veterans and home front workers, a presentation about the history of the school, a social advertisement video, a blog dedicated to socially significant issues, etc.
The creation of an information product is subject to the following algorithm: the topic of an information product entails the definition of its form; the form determines (if necessary) the search for partners; functional-role distribution precedes the actual creation of the information product (this stage includes working with information, the technological process and the presentation or placement of the information product); the final stage is reflection. The mastery of this algorithm by schoolchildren presupposes the following skills: analysis of the social situation (to determine the significance of society's problems and assess the possibility of personal participation for their solution); the ability to conduct a constructive dialogue; possession of techniques of positive communication (to determine the topic, justify the form, search for partners); choice of a type of activity adequate to personal experience (for the implementation of functional-role distribution); search and analysis of information (completeness, reliability, compliance with the task, etc.); assessment of their own activities (reflection).
Observation of the activities of schoolchildren in the creation of information products confirmed that at each stage of the creation of an information product, according to the algorithm, the student needs communicative qualities and communication skills, which is significant for the formation of civic consciousness of the student as a subject of the information society. In order to confirm the data obtained as a result of observation, we have developed a diagnostic toolkit that ensures the identification of the level of formation of civic consciousness of schoolchildren. The indicators were the levels of formation of civic knowledge, communication skills, communication skills (on the scale "high - medium - low"), experience in creating an information product (on the scale "I can teach another - I can create on my own - I can create with the help - no experience"). According to the principle of the generality of the results of the diagnostics, 4 groups of schoolchildren were formed. The first group included schoolchildren with a high level of formation of civic knowledge and communicative qualities, whose communication skills are presented at an intermediate level, there is little experience in creating information products, which students assessed as "I can create an information product using help." The second group of schoolchildren differs from the first in terms of "communicative qualities" (low level), despite the high level of civic knowledge and the presence of communication skills and little experience in creating information products, the representatives of this group do not know the techniques of positive communication. Schoolchildren, united in the third group, have an average level of civic knowledge and communicative qualities, practically do not have communication skills (low level) and have no experience in creating information products. Representatives of the fourth group are schoolchildren with a low level of civic knowledge, an average level of communicative qualities, while they have a high level of communication skills and can independently create an information product.
Further work on the formation of the citizenship of schoolchildren was organized taking into account the formed groups. Students of each of the groups, under the guidance of a teacher-curator, created information products of immaterial (oral journal) and material form (printed collection, video), following the algorithm we developed.
Analysis of the performance results of schoolchildren in each of the groups made it possible to draw the following conclusions. The level of formation of civic knowledge determines the social significance of the topic of an information product: the higher the level, the greater the social significance of the topic. Thus, representatives of the first group of schoolchildren (a high level of civic knowledge) proposed to create an oral magazine dedicated to one of the days of Russia's military glory: the day of the victory of the Russian squadron under the command of P.S. Nakhimov over the Turkish squadron at Cape Sinop (1853), motivating his choice with the importance of the event for Russia and the insufficient degree of his popularity among schoolchildren, despite the consideration of the material about the Battle of Sinop in the course of studying the discipline "History of Russia". Representatives of the fourth group (low level of civic knowledge) experienced certain difficulties when choosing a topic for an information product of civic content, communicative qualities and communication skills (medium and high levels of manifestation for representatives of this group) made it possible to resolve the current situation in the work of this group by discussing the topic with partners and turning to alternative sources of information. As a result, the representatives of the fourth group opted for this topic. oral journal as "The streets of the city bearing the names of the heroes." The magazine, on the advice of the teacher-curator, it was decided to present it to younger schoolchildren, which will increase the educational potential of the activity to create this information product: an intergenerational dialogue will be organized, the target audience of product consumers will be expanded, and conditions have been created for schoolchildren to express their own civic position.
The level of communicative qualities determines the success of the search for partners in the creation of information products, as well as the quality of presentation of the information product to users. A potential partner must be convinced that the activity that cannot be carried out without his help is socially significant and will benefit not only the creators of the information product, but also its users, including the partner himself, that is, to express their civic consciousness. The pupils of the first group, possessing the skills of productive communication, were able to build a constructive dialogue with a potential partner, thanks to which they received support and assistance in creating an information product.
Representatives of the second group, possessing low-level communicative qualities, experienced certain difficulties in communicating with potential partners. Submitting the oral journal also took some effort. Representatives of the fourth group, in which communicative qualities are presented at an average level, and communication skills are high (in contrast to representatives of the second group, where communicative qualities are presented at a low level), were able to faster and better perform such a stage of the algorithm for creating an information product as searching for partners; schoolchildren not only organized an interview in person with potential partners, but were also able to formalize their requests for cooperation in the form of written requests, sending them via e-mail to potential partners.
Communication skills associated with the experience in creating an information product make it possible to successfully complete such a stage of the algorithm as the creation of an information product itself, namely its sub-stages - working with information and the technological process. For representatives of the second group of schoolchildren, where communication skills are presented at a low level and there is no experience in creating information products, it was most difficult to create an information product, difficulties were overcome as a result of cooperation with partners, thanks to the actions of the teacher-curator. The guys acted according to instructions, templates, from simple operations to complex ones.
Comparison of the results of the research carried out after the presentation of information products with the results of research carried out before the organization of activities to create information products showed that this activity, organized according to the algorithm we proposed, contributes to the formation of civic consciousness of schoolchildren as subjects of the information society. For each of the indicators, there is a transition to a higher level of manifestation, with the exception of representatives of the third group, where communicative qualities still manifest themselves at an average level.
Bibliographic reference
Vagaytseva E.S. COMMUNICATIVE QUALITIES AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN THE STRUCTURE OF CITIZENSHIP OF THE MODERN SCHOOL STUDENT // Modern problems of science and education. - 2017. - No. 2 .;URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=26277 (date of access: 28.02. We bring to your attention the journals published by the "Academy of Natural Sciences"